Early morning, Christmas Day. Tracy has had wonderful fellowship with God, in His Word, in prayer. She enjoys the warmth of the coffee cup in her hand and watches Biff trot over for a head scratch.

 

"Lot's of stuff to clean up, Biffster. The girls will be over in a bit to help so what say you and I just sit, relax, and enjoy."

 

Christmas is the celebration of God the Son, the Lord Jesus Christ, taking our form. She thought again on the text from 1 Timothy 1:15 this morning. Why did He come? "It is a trustworthy statement, deserving full acceptance, that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners, among whom I am foremost of all."

 

She had then read Charles Spurgeon's commentary: "Jesus Christ came to save sinners of all sorts. So long as you can come under the general description “sinners,” it matters not what shape your sin has taken.

 

All men have alike sinned, and yet all have not sinned in the same way. They have all wandered the downward road, and yet each one has gone a different way from all the rest.

 

Christ Jesus came into the world to save respectable sinners and disreputable sinners. He came into the world to save proud sinners and despairing sinners. He came into the world to save drunkards, thieves, liars, whoremongers, adulterers, murderers, and such like.

 

Whatever sort of sin there is, this word is wonderfully comprehensive and sweeping: “Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners."

 

"Amen," Tracy breathed. "He saved even me."

 

She thought further on Spurgeon's commentary, "At this season, the world is engaged in congratulating itself and in expressing its complimentary wishes for the good of its citizens; let me suggest extra and more solid work for Christians.

 

As we think today of the birth of the Savior, let us aspire after a fresh birth of the Savior in our hearts; that as he is already “formed in us the hope of glory,” we may be “renewed in the spirit of our minds;” that we may go again to the Bethlehem of our spiritual nativity and do our first works, enjoy our first loves, and feast with Jesus as we did in the holy, happy, heavenly days of our espousals."

 

Paprihaven wishes you and yours a most blessed Christmas!

 

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A year of the shows and performers of the Bijou Planks Theater.

 

We celebrate seven days of Christmas 2024! Jesus is Emmanuel, God with us. God come to save His people. Without Christmas, without the Incarnation of the virgin birth, the work of Christ would not have begun and we would have no hope.

 

Born in lowly, despised conditions, lived a life of poverty and struggle, brutally executed on a cross. This is not how we would have written the story of our Redeemer, but that's because we always fatally miss the reality of the vast difference between our sin and God's holiness. We think we're 'not that bad' and thus we fail to recognize the distance that must be bridged and thus the harsh magnificence of the required exchange.

 

Jesus was born to die that we may live. If you have not, seek God and beg His mercy today.

 

"But the tax collector, standing some distance away, was even unwilling to lift up his eyes to heaven, but was beating his breast, saying, ‘God, be merciful to me, the sinner!’" Luke 18:13

 

Previous Days of Christmas in Paprihaven!

2015:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/23948604605/

2016:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/31882163195/

2017:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/39290040911/

2018:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/45738141964/

2019:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/49274159896/

2020:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/50758626163/

2021:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/51773859576/

2022:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/52585343921/

2023:

www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/53420331878/

 

In 1917 the occultist Baron Rudolf von Sebottendorf, the Gurdjeff disciple Karl Haushofer, the ace pilot Lothar Waisz, Prelate Gernot of the secret "Societas Templi Marcioni" (The Inheritors of the Knights Templar) and Maria Orsic, a transcendental medium from Zagreb met in Vienna. They all had extensively studied the "Golden Dawn", its teachings, rituals and especially its knowledge about Asian secret lodges. Sebottendorf and Haushofer were experienced travellers of India and Tibet and much influenced by the teachings and myths of those places. During the First World War Karl Haushofer had made contacts with one of the most influential secret societies of Asia, the Tibetan Yellow Hats" (dGe-lugs-pa). This sect was formed in 1409 by the Buddhist reformer Tsong-kha-pa. Haushofer was initiated and swore to commit suicide should his mission fail. The contacts between Haushofer and the Yellow Hats led in the Twenties to the formation of Tibetan colonies in Germany.

 

The four young people hoped that during these meetings in Vienna they would learn something about the secret revelatory texts of the Knights Templar and also about the secret fraternity Die Herren vom Schwarzen Stein ("The Lords of the Black Stone"). Prelate Gernot was of the "Inheritors of the Knights Templar", the only true Templar society. They are the descendants of the Templars of 1307 who passed on their secrets from father to son - until today. Prelate Gernot apparently told them about the advent of a new age - the change-over from the Age of Pisces to the Age of Aquarius.

 

They discussed that our solar year - according to the twelve revolutions of the moon - was divided into twelve months and thus the revolution of our sun around the great central sun (the Black Sun of ancient myths) was also divided into twelve parts. Together with the precession of the cone-shaped proper movement of the Earth due to the inclination of the axis this determines the length of the world age. Such a "cosmic month" is then 2,155 years, the "cosmic year" 25,860 years long. According to the Templars the next change is not just an ordinary change of the age, but also the end of a cosmic year and the start of an absolutely new one.

 

The main part of the discussions dealt with the background of a section of the New Testament, Matthew 21:43. For there Jesus addressed the Jews:

 

Therefore I tell you that the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a people who will produce its fruit.

 

The complete original text that is kept in the archives of the "Societas Ternpli Marcioni" says it even more clearly. But the point is: In that text Jesus actually names the "people", He talks to Teutons serving in the Roman legion and he tells them that it is THEIR people that he had chosen. That was what Sebottendorf and his friends wanted to know for sure: That the Teutonic, i.e. the German, people were commissioned to form the realm of light upon Earth - in the "Land of the Midnight Mountain" (Germany). The place where the ray would meet the Earth was given as the Untersberg near Salzburg.

  

What was the legend of the Untersberg mountain, at which Hitler spent many hours gazing from his study in the Berghof? Historians guess that, like King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa is buried there, waiting for a call to arise from the dead to come to his country's aid in its hour of need. That is not the legend of the Untersberg, though.

 

In 1220, Templar Komtur Hubertus Koch, returning with a small party from the Crusades, passed through Mesopotamia, and near the old city of Nineveh in modern Iraq, received an apparition of the goddess Isais (first child of goddess Isis and god Set). She told him to withdraw to the Untersberg mountain, build a house there and await her next apparition.

 

Whether that is true or not, in 1221, Koch erected his first Komturei at the foot of Ettenberg near Markt Schellenberg. A second, larger structure followed. It is believed that over the next few years, underground galleries were excavated into various areas of the Untersberg, and in one of them a temple to Isais was built.

 

A second apparition occurred in 1226 and were repeated on occasions until 1238. During this period the Templars received Die Isais Offenbarung, a series of prophesies (recently published) and information concerning the Holy Grail. The Templars at Jerusalem had knowledge of these visitations, over which the Church drew a veil of silence. What follows is only tradition, but may be of interest.

 

It is the German tradition that the Templars were ordered to form a secret scientific sect in southern Germany, Austria and northern Italy to be known as "Die Herren vom Schwarzen Stein" - The Lords of the Black Stone - or DHvSS for short, and this is said to be the true, hidden meaning of SS.

 

The Holy Grail ("Ghral" is holy stone, Persian-Arabic) was said to be a black-violet crystal, half quartz, half amethyst, through which Higher Powers communicated with humanity. It was given into the safe-keeping of the Cathars, and smuggled out of the last stronghold at Montsegur, France, and hidden, by four Cathar women on the night of 14 March 1244. There is a Cathar legend that 700 years after the destruction of the Cathar religion the Holy Grail would be returned to its rightful holders, DHvSS, or the SS?

   

Ruins of Montsegur

   

the "Teehaus"

It may be of interest to note in this connection that the Tea House designed by Hitler and built atop the Mooslahnerkopf at Obersalzberg, the stone pavillion still standing today, bears a striking resemblance to Montsegur when viewed at certain angles from the foot of the great rocky outcrop. Whether this was a coincidence remains in the mind of the beholder.

  

At the end of September 1917 Sebottendorf met with members of the "Lords of the Black Stone" at the Untersberg to receive the power of the "Black-Purple Stone" after which the secret society was named.

 

The "Lords of the Black Stone" who formed out of the Marcionite Templar societies in 1221 led by Hubertus Koch who had set as their aim the fight against evil and the building of Christ's realm of light.

    

A circle formed around Baron Rudolf von Sebottendorf, who wrote about this in a book that was later banned by the Nazi’s Bevor Hitler Kam (Before Hitler Came), that via the "Teutonic Order" in 1918 in Bad Aibling became the "Thule Gesellschaft".

 

The themes they tried to link to politics were scientific magic, astrology, occultism and Templar knowledge as well as "Golden Dawn" practices like Tantra, Yoga and Eastern meditation.

 

The Thule-Gesellschaft believed, following the Revelation of Isais, in a Coming Saviour (German: Heiland = the Holy One), the "Third Sargon" who would bring to Germany glory and a new Aryan culture.

  

Guido von List (1905)

 

Some of the most important teachings influencing the Thule-Gesellschaft was the Aryo-Germanic construction of religion (Wihinei) by the philosopher Guido von List, the Glacial Cosmology by Hans Hörbiger and a leaning towards the anti-Old Testament early Christianity of the Marcionites. The innermost circle at any rate had vowed to fight World Judaism and Freemasonry and its lodges.

 

In the eyes of the Thule Gesellschaft, from which later emerged the DAP (German Workers' Party), the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party), the SS (Schutzstaffel), the Jewish people who had been charged by the Old Testament god JAHVEH to "raise havoc on Earth" were the reason why the world was always caught up in war and discord.

 

Far from being a fringe secret society, the Thule Gesellschaft had members that reached into the German Aristocracy. It essentially had all of the beliefs expounded by Rosenberg and was the group that Hitler first came to at the beginnings of his rise to power.

 

It was exclusively a rich man’s society and drew its members from the upper echelons of Bavarian Society, and was not open to the middle class or the workers of Germany

 

Indeed one had to show pure Aryan lineage back to the 30 Years War in order to join, one could not be deformed or even be just plain old ‘ugly’, one had to be one of the ‘beautiful people’. It was at this time that the Prime Minister of the Bavarian government, Kurt Eisner (a Jew) was assassinated by a disgruntled young count Anton Graf Arco, who had been refused admission to the Thule Society, presumably because he was of Jewish decent. One of the prime suspects that the police questioned was the Society’s leader. Here we can understand that elitism and racism was an important part of the belief systems of those who formulated the early Nazi doctrine. The assassination transpired in an atmosphere of general fear among the Bavarian elite that Bolsheivism (communism, and with it wealth confiscation) was making important inroads at the end of the war and that there was too much ‘Jewish influence’. This was ‘confirmed’ by the election of the Jewish socialist, Kurt Eisner.

 

Sebottendorff, the leader of the Thule society, was known as an adept at astrology, alchemy divining rods and other occult practices and it was his belief that the Jews were really in control of the Freemasonic lodges that probably led to their eventual seizure and closure when the Nazi’s took power. Indeed, the whole idea of brotherhood that typified freemasonic beliefs was at odds with what the Thulists believed. Indeed Sebottendorff went so far as to say that ‘equality is death’; Thus, freemasons were also singled out by the Nazi’s. He spread his propaganda through Der Münchener Beobachtera newspaper that he purchased because he needed an avenue with which to spread his profane doctrine.

 

As conditions in Germany worsened, it became clear that much of the population was ready for a change. Food had become very scarce and most Germans were hungry and some were even starving. People were reduced to eating dog biscuits and horsemeat. The mark had lost most of its value and discontent was spreading. It was in this atmosphere in which many began to long for and fanaticize for a better world and fundamental change in Germany. There were fights in the streets and beer halls as well as fights between occult and political groups.

 

Members of these groups were not averse to using terrorism to gain their political aims and to put it as briefly as possible, the Thulists wanted to bring together all the anti-Semitic forces in Germany into forceful political action, both legal (elections) and illegal (terrorism).

 

The common theme of the more successful occult groups has always been to hold economic views in keeping with the politics and interests of the wealthier classes. In so doing wealthy patrons and converts can help finance the movement and give it an air of legitimacy. This was violently demonstrated when Hitler betrayed the S.A. who were the working class Germans that assisted Hitler on his way to power. The German elite as well as the SS wanted to rid themselves of this proletarian riff-raff and thus, during the night of the long Knives, the SA (or Brownshirts) was done away with by Hitler and the Elitist SS.

It all started with the Thule Gesellschaft, pagan, anti-Semitic, right-wing aristocratic society founded by a Freemason and Eastern mystic named Baron Rudolf von Sebottendorff. They met every Saturday in Munich’s Four Season’s Hotel to discuss things like runes (an old German alphabet), racial evolution, Nordic mythology and German nationalism. Registered under the name "Thule Gesellschaft" as a "literary-cultural society", in order to fool the communist Red Army now controlling Munich, this group had originally been known as the Germanenorden, or the German Order of the Holy Grail.

  

The Germanenorden had an impressive series of initiatory rituals, replete with knights in shining armor, wise kings, mystical bards and forest nymphs, including a Masonic-style program of secrecy, initiation and mutual cooperation. But they were not copying the ideological aspects of Freemasonry. What the Germanenorden became was, essentially, an anti-Masonry: a Masonic-style society dedicated to the eradication of Freemasonry itself. Their symbol was a Swastika on top of a long dagger, and their beliefs had been influenced largely by the writings of Guido von List and Lanz von Liebenfels.

    

Liebenfels had founded the neo-pagan, Sswastika-waving "Order of the New Templars" on Christmas Day, 1907, along similar ideological lines. In that same year, occult researcher Guido von List began The List Society, part of a then-developing "völkish" (folkish) movement extolling the virtues of Norse heritage, heritage which could be traced by reading the Edda, a compilation of Icelandic legends which Hitler would later take great interest in. The völkish movement itself was based in part on the ideas of Madame Helena Blavatsky, founder of the Theosophical Society famous for her books Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine. She wrote that humanity was descendant from a series of imperfect races which had once ruled the earth, and which all had a common Atlantean origin dating back millions of years, culminating in the Aryan race, which had at one point possessed supernatural powers but had since lost them. She also romanticized about the occult significance of the Swastika, of Lucifer, "The Light-Bearer", and of a cabal of spiritual "Hidden Masters" called the Great White Brotherhood, who guided human evolution from their abode in the Himalayas and who Blavatsky herself purported to channel during her many self-induced trances.

 

And the philosophy of List and Liebenfels took this a bit further, to the extent that the Aryan race was the only "True" humanity, and that the Jews, along with a host of other undesirables, or "minderwertigen" ("beings of inferior value") were sapping the race of its strength and purity through the evil machination of Christianity, Freemasonry, capitalism and Communism. They believed that the Aryan race had come from a place called Thule, the north pole, where there was an entrance to a vast underground area populated by giants. Among the völkish cults it was believed that - as soon as the Germans had purified the planet of the pollution of the inferior races - these Hidden Masters, these Supermen from Thule, would make themselves known, and the link which had been lost between Man and God would be forged anew.

 

These were the beliefs of the members of the Thule Gesellschaft when they met on November 9, 1918 to discuss something of immediate concern; The Communist control of Munich. After a rousing speech by Sebottendorf, the Thule Society began to prepare for a counter-revolution, stockpiling weapons and forming alliances with other like-minded groups, such as the Pan-Germans, the German School Bund and the Hammerbund.

 

The following year, on April 7, a Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed in Munich, causing the Prime Minister of Bavaria to run off to Bamberg in order to prevent a total Communist take-over of the government. Six days later the Thule-Organized Palm Sunday Putsch failed to overcome the Communists in Munich, and now the Thule members were on the Red Army’s Most Wanted list. Sebottendorf got busy organizing an army of Freikorps (Freekorps) to counter-attack. (One of the units of the Freikorps, the Ehrhardt Brigade, later became part of the German Army, and eventually, part of the S.S.)

 

On April 26, the Red Army raided Thule headquarters and began making arrests, including the well-connected Prince von Thurn und Taxis. On April 30, Walpurgisnacht, they were executed in the Luitpold High School courtyard. The following day, their obituaries were published in Sebottendorf’s newspaper Münchener Beobachter (which would evolve one year later in to the official Nazi publication, Völkischer Beobachter.)

 

The citizens of Munich became outraged.

 

The Thule Society organized a citizen rebellion, which was joined by the 20,000-member Freikorps, and together they marched, "beneath a Swastika flag, with Swastikas painted on their helmets, singing a Swastika hymn." By May 3, after much bloodshed and destruction, the Communists in Munich were defeated. But there was much work to be done. The Soviet threat was still very real.

 

With the help of the local police and military, the Thule began organizing a more full-scale national revolt, using connections with societies of wealthy intellectuals. They also began recruiting among Germany’s working class, by forming a group called the German Worker’s Party, which met regularly in beer halls to discuss the threat of Jews, Communists, and Freemasons. This group would later become the National Socialist German Workers’ Party - The Nazi Party, and in November 1923, they would make their first attempt at national takeover, the failed Beer Hall Putsch, led by a man who had originally been sent by the German Army to spy on them - Adolf Hitler.

 

We all know what the Nazi party went on to accomplish. What most people do not know is the extent to which those actions were inspired by the occult beliefs of their perpetrators. The most extreme aims of the Thule Society would all eventually become official policy of the Third Reich, while its purely metaphysical and occult characteristics were adopted wholeheartedly by the S.S.

 

Hitler himself was fascinated by the occult. While he was a college student he began reading Von Liebenfels’ magazine, Ostara. Later in 1909, while he was living in poverty in a men’s dormitory and hawking his paintings on the street, Hitler actually met Liebenfels in his office, looking "so distraught and so impoverished that the New Templar himself gave Hitler free copies of Ostara and bus fare back home."

 

Hitler’s friend Josef Greiner recalls in his memoirs how obsessed young Adolf was with astrology, religion, occultism, magic and yoga. Hitler loved Wagner, as we know, especially The Ring Cycle, Parsifal, Lohengrin and Rienzi. It was from Wagner that Hitler gained his affinity for knighthood, chivalry, and the Quest of the Holy Grail, a pagan, Teutonic Grail. In 1915, Hitler was at war, and while in the trenches, wrote a poem, one which "sings the praises of Wotan, the Teutonic Father God, and of runic letters, magic spells, and magic formulas." So there is no doubt that Hitler’s interest in occultism and paganism ran deep. There is doubt, however, as to whether or not Hitler actually performed any magical operations himself. Tthis was not in his nature, a nature inclined towards action, doing stuff, accomplishing things here on Earth, in the 3rd dimension. He did not have the time and the patience necessary for real spiritual endeavors. Hitler was a paranoid and the occult holds special attractions for the paranoid. But Hitler as a cultist? As a black-robed, ritual-performing, invocation-chanting priest of Satan? Probably not.

 

But Hitler as a tool of other cultists? Probably so.

 

In fact, a number of people deeply involved in the occult would have great influence on him and play essential roles in the development of the Third Reich. It would do us well to examine them one by one.

 

Dietrich Eckart

 

Hitler, while working as the leader of the German Worker’s Party, became friends with Thulist Dietrich Eckart, who published a newspaper called Auf Gut Deutsch (In Good German), which ranks with the Völkischer Beobachter as a racist sheet with intellectual pretensions. Eckart had a tremendous effect on Hitler, and it was he who first introduced Hitler to all the wealthy and powerful people he needed make his crusade possible, including Henry Ford, who would later contribute "vital financial support" to the Nazi party. From Eckart, Hitler learned a great deal about the esoteric sciences, and it is said that they occasionally attended seances and talked to ghosts. Eckart, who died after the Beer Hall Putsch, is quoted as saying, "Hitler will dance, but it is I who play the tune."

 

Alfred Rosenberg

 

Eckart protegé, and soon Hitler’s as well, was Alfred Rosenberg, a man who would later become one of the architects of official Nazi policies. One of these policies was that all of the Masonic temples in all of the Nazis occupied territories were to be raided, and the goods shipped back to Rosenberg himself. This was done by Franz Six and Otto Ohlendorf, both occultists. Rosenberg was also friends with another occultist named Walther Darré, who became agricultural minister of the Third Reich. Together they ran around the nation drumming up support for an official state religion based on the worship of the Old Gods, a religion that included purifying the Aryan race of elements that were in the process of polluting it and diluting the strength of its blood.

 

Erik Jan Hanussen

 

In 1932, after his Nazi Party had lost much ground in the Reichstag, and his mistress Eva Braun had shot herself on Halloween Night, Hitler turned to his friend Erik Jan Hanussen, a well-known astrologer and occultist whom he had met back in 1926. Hanusen is supposed to have taught Hitler a number of exaggerated gestures to use in public speaking, ones which could be seen and understood from far away, and which would communicate a message through body language even if a person could not hear what he was saying. Hanussen had never read Hitler’s stars before, but on this occasion in 1932, upon request, he drew up an astrological chart for the future Führer, and told Hitler that his troubles stemmed from an evil hex that someone had cast on him. Furthermore, he said, the only way to get rid of it was for someone to go to a butcher’s backyard located in Hitler’s hometown -- at midnight, on a full moon -- and pull a mandrake out of the ground.

 

For those who don’t know, a mandrake is a "man-shaped" root with supposed medicinal properties which, according to European folklore, will emit an ear-shattering scream upon being uprooted. Sometime a dog would be sent on a suicide mission to pull the root while the magician plugged his own ears.

 

Hanussen performed the ritual himself, and on January 1st of 1933 came to Hitler predicting that he would return to power on the 30th of that month, a date roughly equivalent to the pagan sabbat of Oimelc. Of course, as is known to history, that is exactly what happened. A few weeks later, during a seance held on February 26, Hanussen predicted that the Communists would make another attempt at revolution in Germany, one that would begin by setting an important government building on fire. The next day the Reichstag was in flames and Hitler had all the excuse he needed to go from Chancellor of Germany to Führer of the Third Reich. Six weeks later, Hanussen was mysteriously murdered.

 

Wilhelm Gutberlet

 

There was also another astrologer, a shareholder in the Völkischer Beobachter who had been Hitler’s close friend since the days of the German Worker’s Party in 1919. In the memoirs of Walter Schellenberg he is described as "a Munich physician who belonged to the intimate circle around Hitler". Gutberlet believed in the ‘sidereal pendulum’, an astrological contraption, and claimed that this had given him the power to sense at once the presence of any Jews or persons of partial Jewish ancestry, and to pick them out in any group of people. Hitler availed himself of Gutberlet’s mystic power and had many discussions with him on racial questions.

 

Rudolf Hess

 

A friend of Hitler’s from way back, he had been arrested at the Beer Hall Putsch with him in 1923, and had transcribed Hitler’s Mein Kampf (originally titled Four and a Half Years of Struggle Against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice) while they were both in prison. He later became Hitler’s Deputy Führer. He was an "intimate" of the Thule Society and was way into the occult. Hess introduced Hitler to one of his professors, Karl Haushofter, a man with an interest in astrology who claimed clairvoyance. Haushoffer later came to wield considerable power in Germany by founding the Deutsche Akadamie, and by heading the University of Munich’s Institute Geopolitik -- "A kind of think tank-cum-intelligence agency", according to Levenda. He was vital in forming the Nazi alliances with Japan and South America, and was responsible for the adoption of the Lebensraum ("Living Space") policy, which stated that "a sovereign nation, to ensure the survival of its people, had a right to annex the territory of other sovereign nations to feed and house itself."

 

Himmler and the S.S.

 

The S.S. (Schutzstaffel) was originally formed as a personal bodyguard to Hitler, and numbered around 300 when Heinrich Himmler joined. But when he rose to its leadership in 1929, things changed a bit. Four years later, membership had soared to 52,000. He established headquarters at a medieval castle called Wewelsburg, where his secret inner order met once a year. According to Walther Schellenberg’s memoirs:

 

Each member had his own armchair with an engraved silver nameplate, and each had to devote himself to a ritual of spiritual exercises aimed mainly at mental concentration. The focal point of Wewelsburg, evidently owing much to the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, was a great dining hall with an oak table to seat twelve picked from the senior Gruppenführers. The walls were to be adorned with their coats of arms.

 

Underneath this dining hall there was kept a so-called "realm of the dead", a circular well in which these coats of arms would be burnt and the ashes worshipped after the "knight" had died. (There are tales of Himmler using the severed heads of deceased S.S. officers to communicate with ascended masters). In addition to this, each knight had his own room, "decorated in accordance with one of the great ancestors of Aryan majesty." Himmler’s own room was dedicated to a Saxon King Henry the Fowler, whose ghost Himmler sometimes conversed with.

 

Outside of the inner order, SS officers were discouraged from participating in Christian ceremonies, including weddings and christenings, and celebrated the Winter Solstice instead of Christmas. The traditional day of gift exchange was switched to the day of the summer solstice celebration. These ceremonies were replete with sacred fires, torchlit processions, and invocations of Teutonic deities, all performed by files of young blond-haired, blue-eyed Aryan supermen. Although Himmler admired the ceremonial nature of Catholicism and modeled the S.S. partially on the Order of the Jesuits, he also despised Christianity for what he considered its weak, masochistic nature. He held further resentment because of the persecution of German witches during the Inquisition.

 

Himmler, along with Richard Darré, was responsible for absorbing The Ahnenerbe Society "a kind of seminary and teaching college for the future leaders of the Thousand Year Reich", into the S.S. The Ahenenerbe was devoted to some odd völkish studies, each of which had a subdivision dedicated to it: Celtic Studies, Externsteine (near Wewelsburg), where the world-tree Yggdrasil was supposed to reside, Icelandic research; Tibetan research, Runic studies; a strange new twist on physics called the "World Ice Theory", an archeological research in an effort to find evidence of past Aryan presence in remote locations all over the world, such as South America, giving rise to "Aryans discovered America" stories.

 

Another theory propounded by Himmler was that babies that had been conceived in cemeteries would inherit the spirits of whoever was buried there, and actually published lists of cemeteries that were good for breeding because of the Teutonic heroes resting therein. Himmler was obsessed with the concept of the Holy Grail, and hired researchers to try and prove that the Grail was actually a Nordic pagan artifact.

 

The Allied Occult Offense

 

Himler was obsessed by the idea that British Intelligence was being run by the Rosicrucian order, and that occult adepts were in charge of MI5. Whether or not that was true, the Germans were certainly not the only participants in the war using the power of magick to their advantage. Levenda provides the details of a "Cult Counterstrike" organized by the intelligence agencies of the U.S. and Britain, an effort centering around the "most evil man in the world", the Great Beast 666, Aleister Crowley.

 

Crowley had gone to live in New York during WWI after being rejected for military service by the British government, and began writing "pro-German propaganda" for a magazine called The Fatherland, published by George Viereck. Crowley took over as editor. He later claimed that he had really been working for British Intelligence, because his articles were so outlandish that the journal was reduced to absurdity, a caricature of serious political discussion, which would help the British cause more than harm it.

 

There is some evidence to suggest that Crowley was working for MI5 during this time, spying on his fellow OTO initiate Karl Germer, a German intelligence agent, so perhaps his excuse for working for The Fatherland is sound. Whatever the case, he was definitely hired by MI5 during WWII.

 

Crowley had become friends with author Dennis Wheatley, well-known for a number of fiction and non-fiction books based on the occult who had once worked for Winston Churchill’s Joint Planning Staff. He had been introduced to Crowley by a journalist named Tom Driberg, who would later become a spy for MI5 as well, and who would come into possession of Crowley’s diaries shortly after his death in 1947. Wheatley also introduced Crowley to yet another MI5 agent, Maxwell Knight.

 

Knight was the real historical figure behind the fictional character "M" in all the James Bond novels, written by Knight’s friend in the Department of Naval Intelligence, Ian Fleming. Crowley met Knight for dinner at Wheatley’s house, and it was there that Crowley agreed to take them both on as magick students. Later, Ian Fleming dreamed up a way to use Crowley’s expertise in a scheme against the Germans.

 

The scheme involved an Anglo-German organization known as "The Link", a supposed "cultural society" which had once been under the leadership of Sir Barry Domville, Director of Naval Intelligence from 1927 to 1930. The Link had been investigated by Maxwell Knight in the 1930s because of its involvement in German spy operations, and was soon dissolved after much incriminating evidence was found.

 

As Levenda describes, Fleming "thought that the Nazis could be made to believe that the The Link was still in existence, they could use it as bait for the Nazi leadership. The point was to convince the Nazis that The Link had sufficient influence to overthrow the Churchill government and thereby to install a more pliable British government, one which would gladly negotiate a separate peace with Hitler."

 

The suggestion came in the form of fake astrological advice passed on to the gullible Rudolf Hess, who was already under the delusion that only he could talk the British into peace with Germany, and that it was his destiny to do so. One of his staff astrologers, Dr. Ernst Schulte-Strathaus, under British employ, encouraged Hess to make his mission to England on May 10, 1941 a significant date because of a rare conjunction of six planets in the sign of Taurus. The Duke of Hamilton was also enlisted to let Hess know that he would be happy to entertain him should he plan to go through with such an endeavor.

 

So Hess, a trained pilot, embarked on a rather dangerous solo flight to the British Isles, parachuting into Scotland donned in various occult symbols, where he was immediately arrested by the waiting Brits.

 

Fleming tried to obtain permission for Crowley to debrief Hess in order to develop intelligence on the occult scene in the Third Reich and particularly the Nazi leadership. But this permission was denied, and Hess spent the rest of his days in prison not being much use to anybody. What could have been a major propaganda coup against the Nazis went utterly wasted, as if by tacit agreement on both sides.

 

After Hess’ arrest, Hitler denounced him as a crazed madman, and began persecuting astrologers and occultists in his own domains more so than ever before. Crowley continued trying to help the Allied cause, but most of his ideas were rejected.

 

One, however, while initially dismissed, was later implemented. This involved dropping occult pamphlets on the German countryside that predicted a dire outcome for the war and depicted the Nazi leadership as Satanic. A forgery of a popular German astrological magazine called Zenit was created and dropped onto enemy battlefields. It was set for full-scale distribution, but the delivery was intercepted by the Gestapo before it could be completed.

 

Besides Crowley, there were other occultists involved in the fight against the Third Reich. One of Crowley’s protegés, Jack Parsons, who was the Head of the Agapé O.T.O. Lodge in California as well as a charter member of both Cal-Tech and the Jet propulsion Laboratory, invented the "Greek Fire" rocket propellant which was widely used by the United State Navy between 1944 and 1945. It was a solution that could have only come from someone with a working knowledge of the arcane lore of alchemy and magic.

 

[Parsons later killed himself in an accident involving fulminate of mercury. He had been driven crazy and proclaimed himself the Anti-Christ after becoming involved with one "Frater H", who was actually a spy sent by Naval Intelligence to infiltrate the O.T.O. That spy’s name was L. Ron Hubbard!]

 

There was also a Golden dawn initiate named Sam Untermyer, an attorney and wealthy philanthropist once called a "Satanist" by a British newspaper. Untermyer started the "Non-Sectarian Anti-Nazi League to Champion Human Rights" and the "World-Anti-Nazi Council", which both promoted the boycott of German products. He also donated money to the hunt for Nazi agents coming into New York. And with the help of a man named Richard Rollins, he started a secret society called "the Board" which engaged in counterespionage against Nazi groups who were recruiting in the United States.

 

World War II was a magick war, and a holy war, a war in which both sides consider themselves to be fighting the forces of evil. It was a war operated behind the scenes by mystical adepts using their esoteric knowledge of symbolism, astrology, meditation, astral travel, clairvoyance, and mind control against the enemy. A war inspired by age-old beliefs in the Elder Gods of Europe’s ancient past.

 

black.greyfalcon.us/thule.html

Luca Giordano . 1634 1705. Naples et Rome.

Saint Michel vainc les anges rebelles

Saint Michael overcomes the rebel angels

Vienne Kunsthistorisches Museum

 

Selon la tradition les anges, purs esprits, immortels, ont été créés par Dieu au début de la création de notre univers, avant l'homme.

Un jour, le plus beau de tous les anges, Lucifer, s'est révolté contre Dieu et à entraîné à sa suite environ le tiers des anges. L'Archange Saint-Michel les a précipité en enfer.

 

According to the tradition the angels, pure spirits, immortals, were created by God at the beginning of the creation of our universe, before the man.

One day, the most beautiful of all the angels, Lucifer, rebelled against God and led to about a third of the angels after him. The Archangel has thrown into hell.

 

LA PEINTURE ET LA SUCCESSION DES IDEOLOGIES EN EUROPE

 

L'Art est ce que vous croyez. Et l'art vous fait croire en ce que vous croyez. L'art vous fait aussi croire en ce que vous ne croiriez pas, si vous étiez libre de croire.

 

Aristote a écrit dans "la Politique" que l'homme était un animal politique. Certes, le politique est relatif à l'organisation et à l'exercice du pouvoir dans une société structurée. Les fourmis, les termites, les loups et beaucoup d'autres animaux, organisés en sociétés structurées sont aussi politiques que l'homme. Eux aussi sont des animaux organisés en sociétés complexes. Le fait que chez l'homme cette organisation relève de la pensée et non de l'instinct est antérieur : l'homme est le seul "animal pensant", l'unique "animal idéologique" : le seul être vivant qui ne cesse pas de rêver, d'imaginer le monde et d'inventer des conceptions du monde qui conditionnent sa politique, son organisation sociale et l'exercice du pouvoir dans les sociétés humaines. C'est cela les idéologies : rêver le monde, même quand les rêves ressemblent plus à des cauchemars. Penser, c'est en effet, tout de suite, penser bien et mal ou les deux simultanément. Pourquoi cela ? Sur ce point il est possible d'observer une constante dans l'évolution humaine. Au cours de son histoire l'humanité, notamment celle européenne et occidentale, telle que cette histoire se révèle notamment dans l' art de la peinture, est passée de conceptions du monde religieuses, dans laquelle l'homme était rien, ou peu de chose, seulement une vie parmi d'autres, inférieure aux Dieux et à Dieu, à des conceptions comme celles sémitiques, judaïque chrétienne, islamique, dans lesquelles l'homme est une créature élue, privilégiée de Dieu, pour aboutir à des visions du monde sans Dieux ou sans Dieu, où l'Homme est un aboutissement de l'Evolution, la principale vie, au-dessus de toutes les autres. Une évolution ou une involution? Ou les deux simultanément?

 

L'art est une expression de la manipulations des hommes par leurs élites gouvernantes, politiques et idéologiques. C'est un fait historique. Reste une question : cette manipulation est-elle bénéfique, créatrice d'une civilisation durable dans une société donnée ? Ou cet art et l'idéologie qu'il sert sont-ils stériles et conduisent-ils à la mort des sociétés auxquelles ils ont été imposées ? Il existe là aussi des exemples historiques.

L'histoire de la peinture européenne raconte nécessairement l'histoire des idées qui animent la société européenne au fil des siècles. Il faut éviter d'employer des termes qui sont par eux mêmes des jugements de valeurs comme "Moyen Âge", "Temps Modernes", "Renaissance", "Réforme" ou "Lumières". Ou tout au moins avoir bien conscience que ces grandes divisions classiques de l'historiographie européenne et occidentale sont en réalité des parti-pris sur l'histoire réelle, une histoire racontée, totalement orientée et affabulée par les idéologies actuellement en place dans tout l'Occident : les "Lumières", véritable religion de notre temps.

Une des caractéristiques de l'Europe qui transparaît au travers de l'histoire de sa peinture est une nette tendance, à l'instabilité, à l'impermanence culturelle et idéologique. Une difficulté à pérenniser et a contrario une propension au changement qui caractérise cette société en comparaison d'autres civilisations. Fernand Braudel a très bien cerné ce phénomène avec l'acuité de son esprit de synthèse comparative :

"Les civilisations d'Extrême Orient se présentent comme des ensembles qui auraient atteint très précocement une maturité et un développement remarquable mais pour rendre quasi immuables certaines de leurs structures essentielles. Elles en ont tiré une cohésion remarquable mais aussi une difficulté à se transformer elle mêmes, à vouloir et pouvoir évoluer. En Extrême Orient où les monuments se détériorent comme en Chine et au Japon car bâtis en matériaux légers, l'homme, le social, le culturel semblent au contraire d'une permanence indestructible. Pérennité religieuse, philosophique, sociale et politique sont sa marque, au contraire de l'Occident" (Grammaire des civilisations)

 

L'art de tous les temps et dans toutes les sociétés est un moyen pour les élites d'imposer une religion (sacrée) ou une idéologie (profane, laïque). L'art est donc un intéressant révélateur de la pensée philosophique et morale qui inspire les élites d'une société donnée en un temps donné. Ces religions ou idéologies peuvent différer beaucoup quant au bénéfice que les peuples vont, ou non, en retirer. Certaines sont propices à l'établissement de civilisations au long cours (Egypte ancienne, Antiquité greco-romaine, Christianisme, Hindouisme, Bouddhisme, Islam....) d'autres sont plus ou moins rapidement mortelles ( Religions Aztèque et Inca, Communisme, National-Socialisme).

  

En 313 le christianisme devient légal à Rome et en 392 il devient la seule religion officielle dans tout l'Empire Romain. Le paganisme, la religion de l'antiquité et une bonne partie de sa philosophie (stoïcisme, épicurisme) sont interdits et à leur tour persécutés.

Il faut bien voir que l'effondrement de l'Antiquité et la substitution aux valeurs gréco-romaines, dont les sources étaient indo-européennes, des valeurs chrétiennes, dans leur version catholique et orthodoxe, a été une rupture culturelle considérable. Le christianisme a introduit en Europe toute une vision du monde et de l'homme qui était totalement étrangère à la société européenne entre moins 500 et plus 500. Les nouvelles valeurs et la vision du monde chrétienne est empruntée de manière massive à la culture judaïque et plus largement sémitique. De ce point de vue la christianisation de l'Europe est une acculturation considérable des populations européennes. C'est une rupture de civilisation majeure, un changement idéologique, un bouleversement profond dans la conception que les hommes se font du monde et d'eux mêmes. Et l'art européen est un témoin majeur de cette rupture. La conception du monde qui est celle du christianisme catholique et orthodoxe, va façonner les mentalités européennes et l' art européen pendant bien plus de mille ans.

La Renaissance est une résurrection, très partielle, réservée à une élite intellectuelle et sociale, de la pensée et de certaines valeurs des sociétés grecques et romaines de sources indo-européennes .

Toute la peinture européenne entre 1500 et et le 19è siècle est la manifestation du double héritage culturel de l'Europe, indo-européen d'origine et sémitique d'importation.

 

La " Renaissance" voit apparaître en peinture et en sculpture un art nouveau dont les thèmes sont empruntés à la mythologie grecque et romaine, à la philosophie et à l'histoire de la Grèce et de Rome.

La "Renaissance" c'est essentiellement, culturellement, un retour au passé.

De ce point de vue la "Renaissance" introduit un changement : De 400 à 1500 la peinture et la sculpture européennes ont été exclusivement inspirés par la religion catholique et orthodoxe.

C'est assez rapidement, vers la fin du 15è siècle et au début du 16è siècle qu'apparaissent, d'abord en Italie principalement, les nouveaux sujets de tableaux et de la statuaire.

Mais ce changement, très perceptible dans l'art de la peinture et de la sculpture, n'a aucune conséquence idéologique réelle. Les nouveaux thèmes de l'art sont cantonnés à l'aristocratie. La vision du monde proposée par la religion chrétienne n'est aucunement modifiée ou influencée, même dans l'aristocratie. Les populations européennes ne sont absolument pas concernées. La société européenne demeure régie par la philosophie et la morale catholique et orthodoxe. L'art de la peinture continue à produire en abondance des oeuvres à thèmes religieux pendant plusieurs siècles. Un art qui continue de rassembler autour de lui les élites et les peuples.

 

Un changement de vision du monde s'amorce avec la Réforme. Les Pays Bas, bien que chrétiens, mais protestants, sont tout à fait exemplaires des modifications apportées dans la conception du monde par la nouvelle interprétation du christianisme que proposent Luther, et surtout Calvin. La peinture presque exclusivement de paysage, de moeurs, de portrait, de natures mortes de cette région de l'Europe en est la preuve. Le calvinisme exclut pratiquement de son art pictural les thèmes religieux. Ce n'est pas anodin, c'est une annonce de "temps nouveaux". Cela explique les alliances puissamment actives, idéologiquement et politiquement incontournables, dans l' Occident contemporain. La nouvelle "Sainte Trinité" ou "Sainte Alliance", dont les choix et solidarités idéologiques gouvernent de manière absolue nos sociétés occidentales : Judaïsme, Protestantisme, Maçonnerie. Discrètement d'abord aux 17è et 18è siècles, puis de plus en plus évidemment au 19è siècle, pour triompher de manière totale dans la seconde moitié du 20è siècle et au début du 21è siècle.

Mais, hors des Pays Bas, l'Europe continue jusqu'au milieu du 19è siècle de proposer la même alternance de thèmes tirés de la religion catholique ou orthodoxe et de l'Antiquité gréco-romaine, sans aucun changement dans la vision du monde proposée au peuple, toujours règlée par la religion chrétienne et sa morale.

 

Une véritable rupture idéologique en Europe s'annonce à la fin du 18è siècle avec les "Lumières".

C'est un événement très semblable à l'expansion du christianisme : un changement idéologique absolument majeur. Un bouleversement des croyances métaphysiques, existentielles et morales, et une vision du monde totalement différente qui se met en place.

Particulièrement retentissante, révélatrice, et annonciatrice des "Temps Nouveaux", la Révolution française ferme les églises, et les remplace par des Temples de la Déesse Raison. C'était vouloir aller trop vite. Il faudra quelques siècles pour que le changement d'idéologie prenne racine dans les élites et encore plus dans les peuples.

En Europe de l'Ouest il faut attendre la deuxième partie du 20è siècle pour que la déchristianisation de la société soit complète.

En Europe de l'Est sous domination communiste elle fut imposée dès le début du 20è. Mais il semble que l'entreprise de déchristianisation ait moins bien réussie, en profondeur, par la violence et les persécutions, à l'Est, que dans la relative douceur de l'Europe libérale de l'Ouest.

Le Coca-Cola et les Loges sont plus efficaces que le Goulag et le Parti.

En attendant le triomphe de l'idéologie des "Lumières", pendant un peu plus d'un siècle, de 1815 à 1950, l'Europe connaitra une période de pluralité et d'affrontements idéologiques qui explique bien la diversité et la grande liberté de création qui caractérise l'Art Moderne. Grâce à la concurrence des idéologies les artistes européens assoient leur liberté de création.

A partir de 1950 le triomphe de l' idéologie rationaliste et matérialiste des "Lumières" est complet.

L’Évolution, interprétée comme un Progrès, la Raison et la Modernité, sont les grandes divinités de la nouvelle religion officielle, le catéchisme de ce nouveau Nouveau Testament.

Il n'y a pas de doute : En 2015 l'enseignement dispensé aux petits européens n'est absolument plus le même que celui qui avait cours en 1915. Tout s'est transformé, finalement, en Europe, entre 1950 et 2000, en une génération. Par la grâce d'une Idéologie.

Exactement comme l'enseignement dispensé aux petits grecs du 5è siècle de notre ère n'avait absolument plus rien à voir avec celui des enfants de l'Athènes classique ou romaine.

Et en Art, en peinture, quel changements ? Eh bien précisément: l'Art Contemporain

Pour résumer : L'art contemporain officiel est un anti-art, sur commande, mondialiste, étatique et supra-étatique, public et privé, qui combine sept constantes que l'on retrouve dans presque tous les musées européens:

Il est laid, absurde, provocateur, bâclé, triste, déraciné, obsessionnel, et comme conséquence de tout cela, totalement artificiel.

 

A tous les niveaux de public correspond une "Réserve" : Le Non Art Contemporain Officiel, celui étatique des musées, et celui financier du marché international. Un Non-Art réservé aux élites de l'Intelligence éclairée, et aux élites de l'Argent qui sont au sommet de la Pyramide : les Sages et les Gardiens de la République Universelle. Et sur d'autres circuits, à tous les niveaux moyens et inférieurs de la pyramide, plus populaires, plus nationaux, plus régionaux, plus locaux, l'art privé commercial, l'art mural, et même les tags et les graffitis pour les peuples. Chacun son art ou son non-art.

Mais il n'est pas indifférent de constater que l'élite occidentale contemporaine a choisi le Non-Art, l'inverse de l'art. Tout le problème, pour les peuples, pourrait bien se situer dans ce choix évident des élites, qui inévitablement les concernera un jour dans leur vie quotidienne et même dans leur vie tout court.

 

L'histoire de l'art européen contient un enseignement qui tient en un constat de fait et un jugement :

1° De - 500 à + 1950 l'art européen en peinture et en sculpture s'est voulu Beau et dans son ensemble a été beau.

2° A partir de la deuxième moitié du 20è siècle l'art européen, devenu l'art occidental, l'art officiel, celui des élites idéologiques et politiques, a rejeté la finalité du Beau. L'Art Contemporain officiel est Laid. Une anti esthétique, revendiquée comme telle. L'Anti-Art, imposé par les élites contre les sentiments des populations est une caractéristique de notre temps en Occident.

Ce sont des faits. Il est possible de les nier, et de construire un "réel idéologique", une réalité inventée, c'est à dire fabriquée pour être conforme aux croyances actuelles. Mais ce sont des faits quand même.

3° l'Art Contemporain Institutionnel, Mondialiste, laid, absurde et provocateur, est un signe de décadence, de destruction, de mort. Car tout est relié, le Beau, le Bien, le Vrai. Les élites occidentales ont une éthique dont leur esthétique officielle est nécessairement le reflet. Les peuples ainsi dirigés ont du souci à se faire. C'est un jugement, une opinion, qu'il est possible de ne pas partager.

 

L'histoire de l'art européen contient un second enseignement : Elle montre une évolution qui part d'un art spiritualiste, pour aboutir à un art matérialiste.

Second constat en effet : Le Non-Art Institutionnel, l'Anti-Art du Mondialisme n'est pas seulement laid et absurde, il est totalement, tristement, matérialiste. Il est dépourvu de tout idéal et de toute transcendance. Il n'a pas d'âme. C'est une brocante triviale qui constitue un étalage de présent, omniprésent, totalement coupé de tout environnement culturel, spatial, temporel : Des toiles unies, colorées ou pas, des lignes, des points, des traits et des cercles, des carrés, des rectangles, et bien sûr des taches, surtout des taches. Des gravats, des tuyaux, des balais, des serpillières, des échelles, des lits, des chaises et tables bancales, des entassements de choses diverses : charbon, pierre, cartons, papiers, plastiques. Des poutrelles rouillées, tordues, cassées, des cartons assemblés, des vêtements et chiffons entassés, des boites ouvertes ou fermées, des machineries cassées ou concassées, des tubulures, poutres de ciment, moellons, parpaings, tuiles, briques entières ou pulvérisées, des tubes de néon, des sacs vides ou des sacs pleins, toutes les sortes de tuyaux (fer, ciment, plastiques), du caoutchouc, des seaux, brocs, pots; des palissades, des téléphones, des machines à écrire emballées ou pas, des éviers, des urinoirs, des vélos, des fruits et légumes... tout un super-marché. Mais les prix ne sont pas affichés, ils sont secret d'état. Il est vrai que cet art n'est pas destiné aux peuples. C'est un art d'apartheid, absolument réservé à une prétendue élite. Le discours que l'Art Contemporain Institutionnel tient sur lui-même, totalement provocateur et absurde, artificiel et inintelligible, ne contient plus aucune référence spirituelle, métaphysique ou symbolique.

Il n'a plus rien du spiritualisme de la peinture gothique et orthodoxe

Il n'a plus rien non plus du spiritualisme associé à l'humanisme de la Renaissance.

il n'a plus rien non plus du matérialisme corrigé par la foi protestante, du réalisme positiviste et du naturalisme empathique de la peinture des Pays Bas du 17è siècle.

Il n'a rien de l'explosion de diversité tout à la fois spiritualiste et matérialiste, ni de l'optimisme de l'art moderne.

Le portrait ? Il n'y a plus de portrait dans l'art contemporain institutionnel, ou alors il est totalement hideux. L'Art Mondialiste est un art d'où la divinité, une ou multiple, a disparu. C'est depuis longtemps le projet des élites "éclairées". L'art sans Dieu n'est pas une découverte. Mais l'homme aussi a disparu de cet art, et tous les êtres vivants avec lui.

Une désespérance dans l'homme qui ne s'avoue pas ? Plus peut être, une désespérance dans la vie ?

 

Certainement un projet pour l'humanité qui est habité par un mépris matérialiste des hommes. Au nom d'un Nouveau Paradis, sur Terre, l'Enfer ne sera plus repoussé à plus tard, dans l'Au-Delà mais organisé Ici Bas et tout de suite. L'humanité a déjà fait l'expérience de ce projet, vidé de toute spiritualité, avec le communisme. Le néo-capitalisme vainqueur du communisme, l'a repris en l'habillant toujours des mêmes idées maçonniques et révolutionnaires de "Liberté Fraternité Egalité", mais avec l'Adoration de l'Argent en plus et des méthodes de gouvernement plus indolores, subreptices, manipulatrices plus que violentes.

  

PAINTING AND SUCCESSION OF THE IDEOLOGIES IN EUROPE

 

Art is what you believe. And art makes you believe in what you believe. Art also makes you believe in what you would not believe, if you were free to believe.

Aristotle wrote in "the Politics" that man was a political animal. Certainly, politics relates to the organization and exercise of power in a structured society. Ants, termites, wolves and many other animals, organized in structured societies are as political as man. They too are animals organized in complex societies. The fact that in man this organization is based on thought and not on instinct is anterior: man is the only "thinking animal", the only "ideological animal": the only living being who does not stop dreaming, imagining the world and inventing conceptions of the world that condition his politics, his social organization and the exercise of power in human societies. That is what ideologies are: dreaming the world, even when dreams are often like nightmares. Thinking is indeed, right away, thinking badly or both simutaneously. Why is that? On this point it is possible to observe a constant in human evolution. In the course of its history humanity, especially European and Western humanity, as this history is revealed in the art of painting, has passed from religious worldviews, in which man was nothing, or little, only one life among others, inferior to the Gods and to God, to conceptions such as Semitic, (Judaic-Christian, Islamic) in which man is a chosen creature, privileged by God, to lead to visions of the world without Gods or Godless, where Man is an outcome of Evolution, the superior life, above all others.

An evolution or an involution? Or both simultaneously?

 

Art is an expression of the manipulation of men by their governing, political and ideological elites. This is a historical fact. A question remains: is this manipulation beneficial, creating a sustainable civilization in a given society? Or are this art and the ideology it serves sterile and lead to the death of the societies on which it has been imposed? Here too there are historical examples.

The history of European painting necessarily tells the story of the ideas that have animated European society over the centuries. We must avoid using terms that are by themselves value judgments such as "Middle Ages", "Modern Times", "Renaissance", "Reform" or "Enlightenment". Or at least to know that these great classical divisions of European and Western historiography are in reality biases on real history, a history told, totally oriented and falsified by the ideologies currently in place throughout the West : the Lights, true religion of our time.

One of the characteristics of Europe, which is reflected in the history of its painting is a clear tendency towards instability and cultural and ideological impermanence. A difficulty in perennializing and, on the contrary, a propensity for change that characterizes this society in comparison with other civilizations. Fernand Braudel has very well described this phenomenon with the acuity of his mind of comparative synthesis:

"The civilizations of the Far East present themselves as groups that would have reached remarkable maturity and development very early on, but to make some of their essential structures almost immutable. They have achieved remarkable cohesion but also a difficulty in transforming themselves, in wanting and being able to evolve. In the Far East, where monuments are deteriorating as in China and Japan because they are built of light materials, man, society and culture seem to be indestructible. Religious, philosophical, social and political sustainability are its hallmark, unlike the West" (Grammar of Civilizations)

 

The art of all times and in all societies is a means for the elites to impose a (sacred) religion or an ideology (secular, profane). Art is therefore an interesting revealer of the philosophical and moral thought that inspires the elites of a given society in a given time. These religions or ideologies can differ a lot as to the benefits that peoples will or will not withdraw from it. Some ideologie are conducive to the establishment of long-term civilizations (ancient Egypt, Greek-Roman antiquity, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam ...) others are more or less rapidly mortal (Aztec and Inca religions, Communism, national Socialism).

 

In 313 Christianity becomes legal in Rome and in 392 it becomes the only official religion throughout the Roman Empire. The Paganism, the religion of antiquity and much of its philosophy (stoicism, epicureanism) are forbidden and in turn persecuted.

It must be seen that the collapse of antiquity and the substitution of Christian values, in their Catholic and Orthodox versions, for Greek-Roman values, whose sources were Indo-European, was a considerable cultural rupture. Christianity introduced into Europe a whole vision of the world and of man that was totally foreign to European society between minus 500 and plus 500. The new values and the Christian worldview are borrowed in a massive way from the Judaic culture and more widely Semitic. From this point of view, the Christianization of Europe is a considerable acculturation of the European populations. The Renaissance is a very partial resurrection, reserved for an intellectual and social elite, of the thought and certain values of Greek and Roman societies from Indo-European sources.

All European painting between 1500 and the 19th century is the manifestation of Europe's dual cultural heritage, Indo-European in origin and Semitic in import.

It is a major rupture of civilization, an ideological change, a profound upheaval in the conception that men make of the world and of themselves. And European art is a major witness to this rupture.

The conception of the world which is that of Catholic, Orthodox and then Protestant Christianity, will shape the European mentalities and European art for well over a thousand years.

 

The "Renaissance" saw a new art appear in painting and sculpture, the themes of which are borrowed from Greek and Roman mythology, philosophy and the history of Greece and Rome.

The "Renaissance" is essentially, culturally, a return to the past.

From this point of view the "Renaissance" introduces a change: From 400 to 1500 European painting and sculpture were exclusively inspired by the Catholic and Orthodox religion.

It was rather quickly, towards the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, that the new subjects of paintings and statuary first appeared in Italy.

But this change, very perceptible in the art of painting and sculpture, has no real ideological consequences. The new themes of art are confined to the aristocracy. The vision of the world proposed by the Christian religion is in no way altered or influenced, even in the aristocracy. The European populations are not at all concerned. European society remains governed by Catholic and Orthodox philosophy and morality. The art of painting continues to produce in abundance works with religious themes during several centuries. An art that continues to gather around him elites and peoples.

 

A change of vision of the world begins with the Reformation. The Netherlands, although Christians, but Protestants, are perfectly exemplary of the modifications made in the conception of the world by the new interpretation of Christianity proposed by Luther, and especially by Calvin. The almost exclusive painting of landscape, of social customs, portraiture, and still lives of this region of Europe is proof of this. Calvinism practically excludes religious themes from its pictorial art. This is not insignificant, it is an announcement of "new times". This explains the powerfully active alliances, ideologically and politically unavoidable, in the contemporary West.

This explains the alliances that are powerfully active, ideologically and politically inescapable in the contemporary West. The new "Holy Trinity" or "Holy Covenant", la "Triple Alliance", whose ideological choices and solidarity govern in an absolute way our Western societies: Judaism, Protestantism, Masonry. Discreetly first in the 17th and 18th centuries, then more and more obviously in the 19th century, to triumph in a total and totalitarian way in the second half of the 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century.

But outside the Netherlands, Europe continued until the middle of the 19th century to propose the same alternation of themes drawn from the Catholic or Orthodox religion and Greco-Roman Antiquity, without any change in the proposed world view to the people, always governed by the Christian religion and its morality.

A real ideological break in Europe is announced at the end of the 18th century with the "Enlightenment".

It is an event very similar to the expansion of Christianity: an absolutely major ideological change. An upheaval of metaphysical, existential and moral beliefs, and a totally different worldview that is taking shape.

Particularly resounding, revealing, and heralding of the new times, the French Revolution closes the churches, and replaces them with Temples of the Goddess Reason. It was wanting to go too fast. It will take a few centuries for the change of ideology to take root in the elites and even more in the peoples.

In Western Europe it was necessary to wait the second half of the 20th century for the dechristianization of society to be complete.

 

In Eastern Europe under communist rule it was imposed from the beginning of the 20th century. But it seems that the enterprise of dechristianization has been less successful, in depth, by violence and persecution in the East than by the relative sweetness of liberal Western Europe.

Coca-Cola and Lodges are more efficient than the Gulag and the Party.

While waiting for the triumph of the "Enlightenment" ideology, for a little more than a century, from 1815 to 1950, Europe will experience a period of plurality and ideological clashes that explains the diversity and great freedom of creation that characterizes Modern Art. Thanks to the competition of the ideologies European artists enjoy the freedom of creation.

From 1950, the triumph of the rationalist and materialistic ideology of the "Enlightenment" is complete.

Evolution, interpreted as a Progress, the Reason and the Modernity, are the great deities of the new official religion, the catechism of this new New Testament.

There is no doubt: In 2015 the education provided to European children is absolutely no longer the same as that which took place in 1915. Everything was transformed in Europe, between 1950 and 2000, in a generation. By the grace of an ideology.

Exactly as the education given to the little Greeks of the 5th century of our era had absolutely nothing to do with that of the children of classical or Roman Athens.

And in Art, in painting, what changes? Well, precisely: The Official Contemporary Art.

To summarize: Official contemporary art is an anti-art, commissioned, globalist, state and supra-state, public and private, which combines seven constants found in almost all European museums:

He is ugly, absurd, provocative, botched, sad, uprooted, obsessional, and as a result of all this, totally artificial.

At all levels of public there is a "Reserve": The Official Contemporary Non-Art, the State Art, and the Financial and International Art, the Market Art. A anti-art reserved for the elites of the enlightened Intelligence, and the elite of the Silver who are at the top of the Pyramid: the Sages and the Guardians of the Universal Republic. And on other circuits, at all middle and lower levels of the pyramid, more popular, more national, more regional, more local, the private and commercial arts, wall art, and even tags and graffiti for peoples. Each his art or his non-art.

But it is not indifferent to note that the contemporary Western elite has chosen Non-Art, the inverse of art. The whole problem for the peoples could well be in this obvious choice of the elites, which inevitably will concern them one day in their daily life and even in their very life.

 

The history of European art contains a teaching that is based on a statement of fact and judgment:

1 ° From - 500 to + 1950 European art in painting and sculpture wanted to be beauitful, and as a whole was beautiful.

2 ° From the second half of the 20th century, European art, now Western art, the official art, that of ideological and political elites, rejected the finality of the beautiful. Official Contemporary Art is Ugly.

An anti aesthetic, claimed as such. The Anti-Art, imposed by the elites against the feelings of the populations, is a characteristic of our time in the West.

These are facts. It is possible to deny them, and to build an "ideological real", an invented reality, that is to say manufactured to conform to current beliefs. But these are facts anyway.

3° Institutional Contemporary Art, Globalist, ugly, absurd and provocative, is a sign of decadence, destruction, death. Because everything is connected, the Beautiful, the Good, the True. Western elites have an ethic which is necessarily reflected in their official aesthetics. The peoples thus directed have a lot to worry about. It is a judgment, an opinion, that it is possible not to share.

 

The history of European art contains a second teaching: It shows an evolution from a spiritualistic art to a materialistic art.

The second observation is this: The Institutional Non-Art, the Anti-Art of Globalism is not only ugly and absurd, it is totally, sadly, materialistic. It is devoid of any ideal and of any transcendence. It has no soul.

It is a trivial flea market that constitutes a display of the present, omnipresent, totally cut off from any cultural, spatial or temporal environment: plain canvases, coloured or not, lines, dots, lines and circles, squares, rectangles, and of course stains, especially stains. Rubble, pipes, broomsticks, mops, ladders, beds, chairs and wobbly tables, piles of various things: coal, stone, cardboard, paper, plastics. Rusty, twisted, broken, bent, assembled cardboard joists, stacked clothing and rags, open or closed boxes, broken or crushed machinery, pipes, cement beams, rubble, cinder blocks, tiles, whole or pulverized bricks, neon tubes, empty bags or full bags, all kinds of pipes (iron, cement, plastic), rubber, buckets, brocs, pots; fences, telephones, typewriters, packaged or unpacked, sinks, urinals, bicycles, fruits and vegetables.... a whole supermarket. But the prices are not displayed, they are state secrets.

It is true that this art is not intended for peoples. It is an apartheid art, absolutely reserved for a alleged elite. The discourse that Institutional Contemporary Art holds on itself, totally provocative and absurd, artificial and unintelligible, no longer contains any spiritual, metaphysical or symbolic reference.

It no longer has anything to do with the spiritualism of Gothic and Orthodox painting.

Nor does it have anything of the spiritualism associated with Renaissance humanism.

It has nothing to do with the materialism corrected by the Protestant faith, positivist realism and empathic naturalism of 17th century Dutch painting.

It has nothing to do with the explosion of diversity that is both spiritualistic and materialistic, nor with the optimism of modern art.

The portrait? There is no longer a portrait in official contemporary art, or if there is, it totally hideous.

Globalist Art is an art from which divinity, one or multiple, has disappeared. This has long been the project of "enlightened" elites. Art without God is not a discovery. But man too has disappeared from this art, and all living beings with it.

A Despair in the man who does not admit? More may be, a desperation in life?

 

Certainly a project for humanity that is inhabited by a materialistic contempt for men. In the name of a New Paradise, on Earth, Hell will no longer be pushed back to later, in the Beyond but organized on Earth and immediately. Humanity has already experienced this project, devoid of any spirituality, with communism. Neo-capitalism, the victor of communism, has taken it up again by always dressing it with the same Masonic and revolutionary ideas of "Freedom Brotherhood Equality", but with the adoration of the money, in addition, and more painless, surreptitious, manipulative rather than violent methods of government.

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The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Golden Dawn.The Breaking of the Golden Dawn

They had to fight from the start against Arthur Edward Waite, who, at the head of a group of followers, wanted to modify the system of leadership, for reasons he explained in 1903: to be caliph instead of the caliph, then make The Order give up all magic, overhaul all rituals, and all for good reason: Waite claims the Third Order doesn't exist. Waite and Blackden then founded their own Order, with a temple they named Isis-Urania after the first temple of the Golden Dawn. Brodie-Inner makes his Edinburgh temple independent.Following the Golden Dawn on the Tarot track is much easier indeed: Waite in 1910 gives his drawn version of the mysteries described in "book T" of the Golden Dawn, the "Rider tarot", and accompanies it with a book where he says too much or not enough. The particularity of this game is that, unlike Book T, the Minors are small scenes illustrating the principle attached to them. But no keywords, no visible alchemy or Qabala everywhere: Waite's mysticism emanates from all magic. From the book and the game, then from Book T when it began to be distributed under the coat, many creations flourished, up to recent authors such as the game of Hanson-Roberts, Salvador Dali or the Sacred rose…while that of Crowley inspired Barbara Walker, specialist in feminine magic, the German Haindl, Gill, Clark, or the Italian Mario…in his “Tarot of the Ages”… Attempts from Book T itself gave birth to the game of Robert Wang, supervised by Israel Regardie, the game of Gareth Knight, the game of Geoffroy Dowson, the very faithful game of Sandra Tabatha Cicero...

Paul Foster Case, member of the Order, founds the BOTA (Builders of Adytum), where everyone must paint their game themselves, according to Case's book; the drawing differs slightly from Waite, and has the Minors abstracted.

 

History, technology and survival

 

What is fascinating when one approaches the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn is to see how this structure so brief - from 1887 to 1903: barely sixteen years! - Has dared to touch all areas of occultism, both Western and Eastern, has carried out a gigantic synthesis of contradictory or unusual teachings, and has influenced all the schools of the 20th century throughout the English- and French-speaking world. Audacities forged by Golden Dawn seekers are considered gospel by many esoteric groups, either directly from Golden Dawn because they were founded by a former member, or indirectly through the discovery of their work and the adaptation of the said works to their own research. We are going to see first of all which are the researchers whose discoveries or affirmations have been used by the GD; then we will see the history of the Order itself, and finally the continuators of the GD and its current influence.

 

Masters of the Golden Dawn

 

We can first see a theoretician of ceremonial magic, Cornelius Agrippa, whose work was centered on the analogies between objects, elements, man, and the cosmos. Acting on one according to certain rules, one could act on the other by way of sympathy and by the union of all in all. Henri-Corneille Agrippa de Nettesheim, (1486-1535) is a man who alternately occupies multiple official functions, as theologian, philosopher, linguist, jurist and astrologer, zigzagging with the hunters of the Inquisition who want the head of this man free from any school. His books are a classic reference on talismans and other magic rituals. If the name of Paracelsus (1493-1541) is not unknown to the GD, it is Agrippa who is the "essential" base. Another important base, although much more obscure, will be the angelic system developed by John Dee, (1527-1608), Welsh scholar, following revelations seen in rock crystal by the medium Kelly, visions that Dee took notes. He explains three magics: natural (by sympathy), acting on the elemental; mathematics (numbers and figures) for the celestial world; and religious, acting on the supra-celestial world through a kabbalistic system based on angels. This system includes a true new language, with grammar, syntax, symbolism, only adapted to the angels who can come called by their true names. This carries with it enormous and illegible implications, which Dee called “the Enochian”, in reference to Enoch who was taken up to heaven without dying.

 

Enochian magick is one of the pillars of the secret teaching of the GD. Good books (in English) have been devoted to him, and a divinatory game was even developed a short time ago in order to facilitate the evocative work of the follower. Of course, the great classics of alchemy (Corpus Hermeticus, the Fama Fraternitatis, the Confessio Fraternitatis) and grimoires (especially the Clavicles of Solomon and the Book of Abramelin the Wise) are also used, dissected, reworked and reorganized.

The vogue aroused by Francis Barrett's "The Magus" (1801) grew steadily, despite the blunders with which it was riddled, to the point that Barrett founded a magic association, of which Montagne Summers (1880-1948) and Frédérick Hockley were members. But France will have a great part in the elaboration of the rituals of the future Order: indeed, one of the avowed references of the GD is Papus, jointly with Eliphas Lévi and Court de Gébelin.The old methods and the slow technological revolution since the liturgical catechism. appeared as a trophy . The stigmata are an alchemical ordeal and the symbolism of the way of the cross of an initiation. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn

 

The references

 

Papus (1865-1916) began to write in 1884, at the age of 19, and his written work - like his occult work as founder and unifier of various traditions - was followed with passion across the Channel.

 

Eliphas Lévi (1810-1875) is considered the Great Kabbalist of the century, and his books are scrutinized, dissected, commented on with feverishness. He made known Antoine Court de Gébelin who had revealed the secrets of the primitive world in 1775 and who had given back to the game of tarot peddled in the countryside its letters of nobility.

 

The efforts of the Parisian Rosicrucians (Stanislas de Guaita, Joséphin Péladan) resuscitate the old dream of reviving all these specifically Western forgotten heritages, in the face of the growing Orientophilia due to Madame Blavatski's Theosophy: the Templars and their rites, the Rose+ Cross and their alchemy, the druids and their Celtic secrets, the Egyptian gods and the strength of their symbols, the Enochian mysteries revealed to John Dee and still untapped, divination and communication with the Invisible as sources of esoteric knowledge... Further energized in London by the lightning advances of the Theosophical Society, revealing an invisible world to converse with, and the demonstrations of the spiritualist Douglas-Home, the project is becoming more and more 'in tune with the times'.

 

The founders

 

It was to originate in the minds of three Freemason friends who were also members of the "Societas Rosicruciana In Anglia" (SRIA): Doctor William Wynn Westcott, (friend of Mme Blavatski, reader of John Dee, and Grand- Master of the Societas from 1878); Samuel Liddel Mathers, who later styled himself MacGregor Mathers, claiming descent from the Scottish Clan MacGregor; and William Robert Woodman their friend. One will note in the same Societas Kenneth Mackenzie, admirer of Eliphas Lévi whom he had gone to meet in Paris, and Doctor Felkin. All these names will become familiar to you, because it is around them, and barely a dozen other names, that everything will be built.The foundation : One of the legends has it that the seer Frédérick Hockley, pupil of Francis Barrett and teacher of Mackenzie, died in 1885, leaving behind him a vast library, including manuscripts encrypted with probably a code of the "Polygraphy" of the Abbé Tritheme, initiator of Cornelius Agrippa.

Woodford, a friend of Mackenzie, receives these documents from him. He is not a Mason, but knows Westcott's taste for grimoires. He hands her the texts, which Westcott passes on to Mathers for decoding. In these manuscripts, which turn out to be abbreviated kabbalistic notes, Westcott finds the address of a Rosicrucian connected with the oldest and surest branch of the original true Rose+Cross, Die Goldenne Dammerung (The Dawn Doree): Anna Sprengel, in Nuremberg. He contacted her immediately and obtained the right to establish an English branch of the Order of the Rose+Croix under the name of The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which was done in 1887. Mathers was named Imperator. The first Temple (equivalent to a Masonic Lodge) was opened in 1888 under the name of Isis-Urania. Recruitment is rapid among the Brothers of the Societas, but the Order is also open to non-Masons, and to women. In 1891, Mathers announced the death of Anna Sprengel and the decision to continue working outside the "third Order", the German Rose+Croix. The GD then included an external order, and since 1892 two internal orders, where all the decisions concerning the rituals and the axes of work were taken. Woodman died in 1891. Westcott and Mathers remain sole leaders of the Order.

 

Secret names and ranks

 

The custom of “nomen” in Latin, the sacred language of the Rosicrucians, is established: at the rank of Neophyte, a nomen was chosen. The texts of the Order sent to the followers bore as signature the initials of the nomen of the author. For example, note that of Mathers: Frater Deo Duce and Comite Ferro (DDCF), that of Westcott: Frater Sapere Aude (SA), that of Anna Sprengel: Soror Sapiens Dominabitur Astris (SDA). One will be struck by the resemblance to the customs of the Strict Templar Observance of Germany, transformed into a Masonic rite known as the “Rectified Scottish Regime” by the Lyonnais occultist Jean-Baptiste Willermoz in 1785. The decoration of the temples and numbers of accessories or costumes were heavily inspired by ancient Egypt, apart from the symbolic creations specific to the GD. Here are the names of the ranks of the Outer Order (Golden Dawn): Neophyte, Zealator, Theoricus, Practicus, Philosophus. In the Inner Order (Ordo Rosae Rubae et Aurae Crucis) (The Red Rose and the Golden Cross), nine months after the ceremony of the Portal or the Veil of the Temple, one received the degree of Adeptus Minor which was subdivided into Zelator Adeptus and Theoricus Adeptus; then came the ranks of Adeptus Major, and finally Adeptus Exemptus. The chiefs carried, in the Third Order, the titles of Magister Templi, Magus and finally of Ipsissimus.

 

Teaching content

 

Let us now see the panorama of what the follower of the Golden Dawn must know, or experience, or deepen, aided in this by strict rituals and finicky astrological calendars: 1) To the rank of Neophyte was given a partial view of all the activities of the Order, and of the already important rituals such as the Qabalistic Sign of the Cross and the Minor Ritual of the Pentagram.

2) The other degrees correspond to the Tree of the Sephiroth, the ubiquitous key in the Golden Dawn at all levels; the Zelator corresponds to Malkuth, the Theoricus to Yesod, etc.

In the First Order magical works are not very developed; rather, we insist on self-knowledge through exercises such as "the Middle Pillar" based on kundalini and the Sephirotic tree, introspection, visions in drawings called Tattvas following a Hindu technique, the practice of Geomancy, Tarot, and learning the theoretical bases of Qabalah, astrology, etc. The first principles of the almighty imagination are explained and put into action, principles which will be at the origin of all the theories and methods of creative visualization of which the New Age is fond. 3) In the Second Order, ceremonial magic takes a prominent place, the Tarot is used in another way, and the Adept is supposed to master many rituals, know how to make and consecrate various objects, Lotus staff, Rose+croix personal and pantacles, knowing how to study the why and how of the rituals he once underwent in the first Order, and entering the Enochian world. 4) The Third Order was only in contact with the two founders; it was nicknamed "the Grand White Lodge of Adepts" and received its directives from "mahatmas" whom Mathers contacted, in the purest Theosophical style, by clairvoyance, astral projection, mysterious appointment, or unknowingly....Most theoretical texts have been published in English. The collection by Israel Regardie, a member of the Order, gives only the texts, with little commentary; the French version is well explained by active members of the Order; the publications of Waite or Crowley bear the mark of the remodeling due to their authors; and many followers, members or not, such as Gareth Knight, Robert Wang, Gerald Schueler, Dion Fortune, Moryason...use the techniques, sometimes adapting them. The researcher who would like to operate concretely should make a rigorous synthesis of these different sources... Unless he receives directly from a true Adept the oral teachings which accompany the texts.

And, of course, each follower calls himself “the sole holder of THE TRUE Golden Dawn”! But let's not anticipate. Let us only reflect on techniques as diverse as they are divergent, often based on subjective parapsychological phenomena and clearly affirmed traditions, brought together for the first time, the link being established by constants such as the Tarot, the Qabalah, the Enochian mysteries... Such a conflagration of diverse and passionate thoughts could only explode, both for human reasons due to the development of the pride inherent in all magic, and for purely eggregoric reasons, due to the reworking of rituals and structures as time went by. as the experiences of the Inner Order (RR and AC) impacted the Outer Order (GD).

 

The flaw

 

The flaw came to light with the departure of Doctor Westcott in 1897. The Golden Dawn had been open for ten years. The official reason for leaving is as follows: having forgotten in a "cab" official documents of the Order implicating him, Westcott was summoned by the English authorities to choose between his post of coroner (medical examiner) and his membership of the Order. Rumors about magic around the corpses did not allow a serene exercise of this profession to a follower... We can legitimately suppose that the autocratic character of Mathers was for a lot in the final choice of Westcott, founder of the first hour. Freed from any moderator, MacGregor Mathers had a field day, ruling and deciding everything. Who will be able to judge whether, on the esoteric plane, Mathers' decisions were good or not? Either way, the full powers of the Imperator began to unnerve the spirits - the embodied spirits of his co-followers.

With Westcott's departure begins the decline of the Order as such. One of the points which aroused the anger of the "rebels" was the initiation into the Order in 1898 of a young magician, Aleister Crowley, who, against the opposition of the Brothers and Sisters, was raised to the degree of Adeptus Minor ( the highest grade concretely practiced in the Interior Order) by Mathers himself at the "Ahathoor" Temple in Paris on January 16, 1900.

So much has been said of Crowley that he can't be as black as that. If his personal life was a succession of sexual debauchery and excess, his initiatory written work is fascinating, lucid and balanced. But in Victorian England, even in a secret society where angels, demons and entities roam, Crowley was seen as the reincarnation of Satan himself, a legend he maintained with that mocking smile that we see in certain photos, drawing on his pipe and loving to make the ladies in feathered hats shiver with fright...Mathers' revelation. But finally a satanic legend pays off, and a famous actress, Florence Farr, the leader of the Isis-Urania Temple in London since April 1897, resigns from her post to Mathers. And there, an incredible thing will happen, a clap of thunder in a serene sky: Mathers believes to see in this resignation an underground action of Westcott, and he answers to Florence Farr a letter, dated February 16, 1900 from Paris, which I translated here: "...I cannot let you mount a combination to create a schism with the idea of working secretly or openly under the orders of Sapere Aude (=Westcott) under the false impression that he has been given a power on the work of the Second Order by Soror Dominabitur Astris (=Anne Sprengel). So all of this forces me to tell you completely (and don't get me wrong, I can prove to the hilt every word I say here, and more...) and if I'm confronted with SA I'd say the same , if only for the love of the Order, and in these circumstances which would really kill the reputation of SA, I beg you to keep the secret from the Order for the moment, although in fact you are perfectly free to show him this, if you consider it appropriate after careful consideration".

 

"(Wescott) was NEVER in communication, at any time, either personally or in writing, with the Secret Heads of the (Third) Order, he had himself forged - or caused to be forged - the alleged correspondence between him and them , and my tongue having been bound all these years by an Oath of Secrecy intended for this purpose, lent to him, asked by him, to me, before showing me what he had done, or caused to be done, or both. You must understand that I say little on this subject, given the extreme gravity of the matter, and once again I ask you, both for his love and that of the Order, not to force me to go further forward on this subject. Mathers does not go so far as to deny the existence of Anna Sprengel - whom he confused for a time with an adventurer, Loleta Jackson, alias Madame Horos, alias Swami Viva Ananda - but the word was out: all the German Rosicrucian guarantee was a bluff, a huge bluff, as was the fanciful "History of the Order" by the same Westcott.

 

The fall of the Imperator

 

Florence waits a few days, asks Westcott for an explanation, who calmly denies it, regretting that the witnesses from the first hour are dead. Florence then divulges Mathers' letter to all the Adepts in London, who on March 3 elect a Committee of Seven to hold Mathers to account. Mathers proudly refuses to show any evidence, does not recognize any authority above him except the leaders of the Third Order. On March 23, he dismissed Florence Farr from her duties; on March 29, the Second Order meeting in plenary assembly dismissed Mathers and expelled him from the Golden Dawn, all orders combined. Mathers threatens them with all possible karmic punishments, affirms that one cannot impeach him without his agreement because of magic bonds. Crowley joins him in Paris, comes up against the secession of the Ahatoor temple, and organizes with Mathers a veritable "duel of sorcery" between them and the "rebels". It's tragic to see a mind as vast as Mathers sink in this war of leaders for a power that is crumbling anyway. Each Temple thinks of itself as the sole holder of the "true" rituals, since their personal experiences have been positive (and they were logically positive, given the magnificent work of the founders on the rituals). In addition, each Frater or Soror with a different experience - through the visualization of the Tattvas among other things - feels invested with the duty to "save the true Golden Dawn".

This phenomenon of fragmentation was precipitated by the existence of secret working groups within the Order itself, an existence desired by Mathers as early as 1897 for the purpose of deepening the knowledge acquired. Florence Farr had thus founded a group called “La Sphère”. Enter William Butler Yeats, (1865-1939) Irish, future Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923. After having been leader of Isis-Urania, he left the Order in 1901, the same year as the trial of Théo Horos. and his wife for fraud and sexual offenses, trials where the name and practices of the Golden Dawn were called into question with the distorting amplification that you can guess, and above all the publication of pieces of Ritual of the Neophyte where the oath pronounced by the recipient was considered blasphemy. The demoralizing effect on the followers of the Outer Order accentuated the ravages of the war of leaders... In 1902, the Second Order gave itself a triumvirate to lead it: PW Bullock, quickly replaced by Doctor RW Felkin; MW Blackden, Egyptologist, and JW Brodie-Inner. The tarot forms another set of beliefs, values and processes to replace them, Magdalene translated the Ark of the Covenant into a tree where the branches became cards for a deck....As far as the Golden Dawn initiation on the TOWER is concerned; the couple is falling apart, and an inevitable fight is going to happen.Translation "You must remain in control of the situation and keep your cool. Avoid saying anything that might hurt others. As far as your life is concerned, your romantic relationship may be coming to an end.

Take this as a warning - if you really care about your relationship, it's time for you to do some damage control or open up a line of communication to clear up any misunderstandings. " iation into the system of telepathic speech and quantum science was transmitted by medieval chivalry, which brought to the West the sacred science that had survived in the East. The knight is this transmitting agent, and he inspired the language of the alchemists, which symbolises the force that enables a chemical reaction and therefore a transformation of matter. In chemistry, transmutation has not yet been mastered, but it is a common phenomenon among alchemists. Alchemists are Initiates or, better still, Adepts.

 

www.ledifice.net/7215-3.html

 

The initiatory process for accessing the coded language of the ancient knights probably came to the USA via Rosicrucians inspired by wonderful tales such as The Alchemical Wedding attributed to the name of Christian Rozenkreuz or Goethe's The Wonderful Tale and the Beautiful Lily. Both drew their inspiration from Eastern philosophers, as did Dante, Shakespeare and Hugo. The initiation process was adapted to the tarot deck by Marie Magdalena . Mary Magdalene and Jesus, two great Essene initiates, when they came to Earth, their souls split into five parts to incarnate in as many different bodies. This journey took place between the Resurrection in 33 AD and the Ascension in 73 AD. During these years, Mary Magdalene, Jesus and their children travelled through France, the Netherlands and England. Later, Mary Magdalene and Jesus travelled to Spain, where they met Mary of Bethany and her daughter Sarah. Magda left us the tarot as a tutorial for accessing pure consciousness free of the ego that came mainly from the Romans and was unfortunately taken over by. Rome and therefore by the various occupants of a high command located on the banks of the Tiber. The genesis of the Golden Dawn. is to take our spiritual history early and rediscover this primordial alignment between earthly and cosmic forces. The initiatory process, represented by the imagiers of the Middle Ages, was left dormant in Marseille by Magda. Magda, with her tarot perhaps drawn in the Baumes cave not far from Marseille, has survived to this day. The founders of Golden Dawn asked the Rider Waite Smith trio to recreate a more modern system of representation than the tarot left by Magda and already illustrated by imagiers keen on coded language. Example our knight has worked well, he's a good knight, good night...

 

The image shows the path to follow to become a magician like Magda or, from a more recent, slightly phallocratic and Western point of view, a magician like Jesus.

 

We start with the knight of the sword, and the sword is the intellect. The tower here by. Strasbourg (birth of the free masons). it's this card which sees two guys fall. in jest, it's the loss of ego and weightlessness useful for splitting the soul into thirds. The ace. de baton is the one that Hermes Trimegoiste receives but. it is also that of Moses, it became. the caduceus of. doctors. The page of pentacle brings the philosophical gold to make this transmutation made possible by the operating mode.

 

The Knight of Swords is often taken to represent a confident and articulate young man, who may act impulsively. The problem is that this Knight, though visionary, is unrealistic. He fights bravely, but foolishly. In some illustrations, he is shown to have forgotten his armor or his helmet.A young man stands alone in a field. Pretty flowers, a ploughed field and fruit trees surround him, symbols of the harvest and Abundance to come. He is holding a Denarius in his hand. He looks at it intently. He studies it. The sky is clear. This Jack is quietly building his road to material success.

 

Like all the Jacks in the Tarot, the Jack of Pence represents a beginning, the first stages of a project. The Suit of Pence is the Suit associated with the Earth Element, material possessions and everything we hold dear - our health, our values, our skills. The Jack of Pence symbolises an awareness of the importance of all the material aspects of life. Wands are associated with fire energy, and the Ace of Wands is the core representation of fire within the deck. The card shows a hand that is sticking out of a cloud while holding the wand.

 

When we look at this card, we can see that the hand is reaching out to offer the wand, which is still growing. Some of the leaves from the wand have sprouted, which is meant to represent spiritual and material balance and progress. In the distance is a castle that symbolizes opportunities available in the future.The Ace of Wands calls out to you to follow your instincts. If you think that the project that you've been dreaming of is a good idea, and then just go ahead and do it. The Tower card depicts a high spire nestled on top of the mountain. A lightning bolt strikes the tower which sets it ablaze. Flames are bursting in the windows and people are jumping out of the windows as an act of desperation. They perhaps signal the same figures we see chained in the Devil card earlier. They want to escape the turmoil and destruction within. The Tower is a symbol for the ambition that is constructed on faulty premises. The destruction of the tower must happen in order to clear out the old ways and welcome something new. Its revelations can come in a flash of truth or inspiration.

 

Symbolism of the House of God or the House of God? or Tower for Rider-Waite-Smith in Golden Dawn system: the decisive question of the determinant in the name of the card. I've just been talking about language. And when it comes to language, it's important to be aware of the name of the card. It's a curious name for a tower, alas a dungeon, a fortress used both to protect itself from enemies and to symbolise its power and mark out its territory. It's hard to make the connection between a house and a fortified tower (there are crenellations). The name on the card doesn't match the drawing: symbolism behind it. Joy! Some anti-Cathos tarot cards, generally from the 19th century, call the card the House of God. Wrong! It is not the House of God. It is the House of God. Or Maison Dieu. This also requires a few notes.

The House of God leaves no room for ambiguity: it's a church, a place of worship. The tarot card is not to be taken as such.

The medieval house of God is something else again. "Another meaning of house, "building for specialised use" (12th c.), gave rise to a large number of expressions that appeared in Old French, then again in the 19th-20th c.: the oldest are based on the assimilation between the house and the temple of God (c. 1120, maison Dieu): the hospital where the poor were housed and cared for also received the name Maison Dieu (1165), analogous to hôtel-Dieu, and convents and monasteries that of maison (1165).".

The Maison-Dieu gave rise to legions of small villages and hamlets, particularly on the route to Santiago de Compostela.

Any esoteric researcher knows that when they come across villages with this name, they can stop. The likelihood of finding something symbolic, esoteric or occult in the area is relatively high. God's house (today in US Golden Dawn) is therefore a building where the poor, the sick and pilgrims can find refuge, comfort and care. We're a long way from Babel!.....? And if I remember the meaning of the card[2] at level 2, I'd be happy to add the following: "There is nothing in this world, apart from the spirit, that should not perish from slow or sudden dissociation. Heaven is outside. It is also within. And when its fire consumes or sets ablaze, strips the skin or strikes with lightning, it is always because a fault has been committed against harmony and disorder has arisen... This is how accidents, illnesses, cancers, revolutions and wars arise. Thus perish empires, peoples and races: from false notes." As always, there are many ideological undertones with the Rosicrucians. Food for thought.

 

www.vincentbeckers-cours-de-tarot.net/maison-dieu-symboli...

 

The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was founded by persons claiming to be in communication with the Secret Chiefs. One of these Secret Chiefs (or a person in contact with them) was supposedly the (probably fictional) Anna Sprengel, whose name and address were allegedly decoded from the Cipher Manuscripts by William Wynn Westcott. In 1892, S. MacGregor Mathers (another founder) claimed that he had contacted these Secret Chiefs independently of Sprengel, and that this confirmed his position as head of the Golden Dawn.[1] He declared this in a manifesto four years later saying that they were human and living on Earth, yet possessed terrible superhuman powers.[1] He used this status to found the Second Order within the Golden Dawn,[2] and to introduce the Adeptus Minor ritual. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (Latin: Ordo Hermeticus Aurorae Aureae), more commonly the Golden Dawn (Aurora Aurea), was a secret society devoted to the study and practice of occult Hermeticism and metaphysics during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known as a magical order, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was active in Great Britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development. Many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca[1] and Thelema, were inspired by the Golden Dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th-century Western occultism.[ The three founders, William Robert Woodman, William Wynn Westcott and Samuel Liddell Mathers, were Freemasons. Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn. The Golden Dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation, similar to Masonic lodges; however, women were admitted on an equal basis with men. The "Golden Dawn" was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the "Golden Dawn". The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four classical elements, as well as the basics of astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy. The Second or Inner Order, the Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis, taught magic, including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy. The Third Order was that of the Secret Chiefs, who were said to be highly skilled; they supposedly directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs of the Second Order.

The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn has been considered one of the most important Western magical systems for over a century. Although much of their knowledge has been published, to really enter the system required initiation within a Golden Dawn temple--until now. Regardless of your magical knowledge or background, you can learn and live the Golden Dawn tradition with the first practical guide to Golden Dawn initiation. Self-Initiation into the Golden Dawn Tradition by Chic and Sandra Tabatha Cicero offers self-paced instruction by two senior adepts of this magical order. For the first time, the esoteric rituals of the Golden Dawn are clearly laid out in step-by-step guidance that's clear and easy-to-follow. Studying the Knowledge Lectures, practicing daily rituals, doing meditations, and taking self-graded exams will enhance your learning. Initiation rituals have been correctly reinterpreted so you can perform them yourself. Upon completion of this workbook, you can truly say that you are practicing the Golden Dawn tradition with an in-depth knowledge of qabalah, astrology, Tarot, geomancy, spiritual alchemy, and more, all of which you will learn from Self-Initiation into the Golden Dawn Tradition. No need for group membership

Instructions are free of jargon and complex language

Lessons don't require familiarity with magical traditions

Grade rituals from Neophyte to Porta. Link with your Higher Self

If you have ever wondered what it would be like to learn the Golden Dawn system, Self-Initiation into the Golden Dawn Tradition explains it all. The lessons follow a structured plan, adding more and more information with each section of the book. Did you really learn the material? Find out by using the written tests and checking them with the included answers. Here is a chance to find out if the Golden Dawn system is the right path for you or to add any part of their wisdom and techniques to the system you follow. Start with this book now. At the beginning of the twentieth century the esoteric order of the Golden Dawn deposited part of its magical wisdom in Tarot decks. The Golden Dawn Magical Tarot uses symbology and colours as adhered to by the Order of the Golden Dawn. The major arcana show abstract and very vibrant scenes, but the minors are overly repetitive. Little changes between the cards of a suit but the number of cups or pentacles.More than thirty years ago, U.S. Games Systems published the The Golden Dawn Tarot, revealing for the first time many truths and secrets of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and its interpretation of the tarot. The card designs follow the symbolic framework of the Inner Tradition. The foundational documents of the original Order of the Golden Dawn, known as the Cipher Manuscripts, are written in English using the Trithemius cipher. The manuscripts give the specific outlines of the Grade Rituals of the Order and prescribe a curriculum of graduated teachings that encompass the Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, occult tarot, geomancy, and alchemy. According to the records of the Order, the manuscripts passed from Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, a Masonic scholar, to the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, whom British occult writer Francis King describes as the fourth founder[2] (although Woodford died shortly after the Order was founded).[3] The documents did not excite Woodford, and in February 1886 he passed them on to Freemason William Wynn Westcott, who managed to decode them in 1887.[2] Westcott, pleased with his discovery, called on fellow Freemason Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers for a second opinion. Westcott asked for Mathers' help to turn the manuscripts into a coherent system for lodge work. Mathers, in turn, asked fellow Freemason William Robert Woodman to assist the two, and he accepted.[2] Mathers and Westcott have been credited with developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscripts into a workable format.[c] Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis ("Ruby Rose and Golden Cross" or the RR et AC).

 

www.loscarabeo.com/en/products/tarocchi-iniziatici-della-...

 

A. E. Waite and A. Crowley were inspired by that philosophy, as well as famous poets, intellectuals and artists. Today the Golden Dawn Tarot comes back to light in a new form that translate the secret instructions transmitted only to the initiates of the Brotherhood into extraordinary images.

In a professional draw, The Magician, also known as The Bateleur, indicates that you are highly competent in your field, and that you know how to use your skills and knowledge to achieve your professional goals. So use your natural talents to shine! This is not the time to lose self-confidence, to hide or worse to minimise the extent of your abilities. On the contrary! Show what you can do, and accept the challenges that come your way.

 

From a slightly more divinatory point of view, you can also expect to receive positive feedback from your manager or a potential employer.In esoteric decks, occultists, starting with Oswald Wirth, turned Le Bateleur from a mountebank into a magus. The curves of the magician's hat brim in the Marseilles image are similar to the esoteric deck's mathematical sign of infinity. Similarly, other symbols were added. The essentials are that the magician has set up a temporary table outdoors, to display items that represent the suits of the Minor Arcana: Cups, Coins, Swords (as knives). The fourth, the baton (Clubs) he holds in his hand. The baton was later changed to represent a literal magician's wand.

 

The illustration of the tarot card "The Magician" from the Rider–Waite tarot deck was developed by A. E. Waite for the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in 1910. Waite's magician features the infinity symbol over his head, and an ouroboros belt, both symbolizing eternity. The figure stands among a garden of flowers, to imply the manifestation and cultivation of desires.

 

In French Le Bateleur, "the mountebank" or the "sleight of hand artist", is a practitioner of stage magic. The Italian tradition calls him Il Bagatto or Il Bagatello. The Mantegna Tarocchi image that would seem to correspond with the Magician is labeled Artixano, the Artisan; he is the second lowest in the series, outranking only the Beggar. Visually the 18th-century woodcuts reflect earlier iconic representations, and can be compared to the free artistic renditions in the 15th-century hand-painted tarots made for the Visconti and Sforza families. In the painted cards attributed to Bonifacio Bembo, the Magician appears to be playing with cups and balls. How can we put our spiritual knowledge and beliefs into practice on a daily basis? That's the question posed by Le Magicien. How do you go from thinking of spirituality as a series of intellectual concepts to actually living them? How can you apply them to embody your Authentic Being and bring to life what you really want?

 

The Magician indicates that these answers are already within you and that you have the tools - symbolised by the Tarot Suits on the table - to move towards self-fulfilment. The Magician is very 'hands-on' and advises you to test to find what gives you the greatest sense of well-being and grounding; to practise your Magic to develop yourself and reach your full potential. Intuitive practices create the link between Body, Soul and Spirit... Open your Heart to Intuition and practise!

vivre-intuitif.com/apprendre-le-tarot/signification/majeu...

The Magician - or Bateleur in the Tarot de Marseille - points his wand towards Heaven, while his other hand points towards Earth. This gesture signifies that he captures the Energy of the Universe, that it flows through him, to manifest itself in the world, in everyday life. In front of him, the attributes of the four Tarot Suits are placed on the table: a Rod, a Cup, a Sword and a Denarius. Each represents an Element: Fire, Water, Air and Earth. The magician thus has everything at his disposal to manifest his dreams and desires, to materialize them, to make them possible, tangible. In this Energy, the possibilities are infinite, as underlined by the symbol above his head and belt, a snake biting its own tail. The Magician is associated with the planet Mercury, the planet of competence, logic and intelligence. His number is 1, the number of beginnings. The Magician , also known as The Magus or The Juggler, is the first trump or Major Arcana card in most traditional tarot decks. It is used in game playing and divination; in the English-speaking world, the divination meaning is much better known. Within the card game context, the equivalent is the Pagat which is the lowest trump card, also known as the atouts or honours. In the occult context, the trump cards are recontextualized as the Major Arcana and granted complex esoteric meaning. The Magician in such context is interpreted as the first numbered and second total card of the Major Arcana, succeeding the Fool, which is unnumbered or marked 0. The Magician as an object of occult study is interpreted as symbolic of power, potential, and the unification of the physical and spiritual worlds. The Magician is one tarot card that is filled with symbolism. The central figure depicts someone with one hand pointed to the sky, while the other hand points to the ground, as if to say "as above, so below". This is a rather complicated phrase, but its summarization is that earth reflects heaven, the outer world reflects within, the microcosm reflects the macrocosm, earth reflects God. It can also be interpreted here that the magician symbolizes the ability to act as a go-between between the world above and the contemporary, human world. On his table, the magician also wields all the suits of the tarot. This symbolizes the four elements being connected by this magician - the four elements being earth, water, air, and fire. The infinity sign on his head indicates the infinite possibilities of creation with the will. Upright Magician Meaning. The Magician is the representation of pure willpower. With the power of the elements and the suits, he takes the potential innate in the fool and molds it into being with the power of desire. He is the connecting force between heaven and earth, for he understands the meaning behind the words "as above so below" - that mind and world are only reflections of one another. Remember that you are powerful, create your inner world, and the outer will follow. Remember that you are powerful, create your inner world, and the outer will follow. When you get the Magician in your reading, it might mean that it's time to tap into your full potential without hesitation. It might be in your new job, new business venture, a new love or something else. It shows that the time to take action is now and any signs of holding back would mean missing the opportunity of becoming the best version of yourself. Certain choices will have to be made and these can bring great changes to come. Harness some of the Magician's power to make the world that you desire most.

labyrinthos.co/blogs/tarot-card-meanings-list/the-magicia...

 

Symbolism

Rider–Waite

If The Fool - The Mate symbolises the desire to discover, The Magician is "The Alchemist" of the Major Arcana, the one who can create everything from nothing, transforming lead into gold. The Magician card is therefore the card of "manifestation" par excellence, i.e. to make possible, to concretise and to have an impact on one's environment and the world. The Magician is a card that highlights your unique talents... unique talents that serve your unique and authentic desires.

 

With the Magician, success is within reach. You're ready to use your abilities and skills to achieve your goals. The desire to do something new, to start a cycle, is very strong. In Magician's Energy, you feel optimistic and in a conquering frame of mind. You're able to use all the resources at your disposal to achieve this: your skills, those close to you and all the tools - intuitive or otherwise - that are at your disposal.

 

The Magician is a card that also evokes concentration and focus. So this is not the time to spread yourself too thin or try to do everything at once. It's all about staying focused on a single objective and putting all your energy and resources into it. The Magician warns against distractions, or even temptations, that could lead you astray and compromise the achievement of your objective.

  

The Magician is depicted with one hand pointing upwards towards the sky and the other pointing down to the earth, interpreted widely as an "as above, so below" reference to the spiritual and physical realms. On the table before him are a wand, a pentacle, a sword, and a cup, representing the four suits of the Minor Arcana. Such symbols signify the classical elements of fire, earth, air, and water, "which lie like counters before the adept, and he adapts them as he wills". The Magician's right hand, pointed upwards, holds a double-ended white wand; the ends are interpreted much like the hand gestures, in that they represent the Magician's status as conduit between the spiritual and the physical. His robe is similarly also white, a symbol of purity yet also of inexperience, while his red mantle is understood through the lens of red's wildly polarised colour symbolism—both a representative of willpower and passion, and one of egotism, rage, and revenge. In front of the Magician is a garden of Rose of Sharon roses and lily of the valley lillies....

 

Fairy Tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily from Goethe, Johann Wolfgang was demonstrating the "culture of aspiration", or the Magician's ability to cultivate and fulfill potential of the ouroboros wo symbolized the Green Snake in this tale, the Magician is an. alchemist. The Magician is associated with the planet Mercury the Ouroboros alchemist , and hence the signs of Gemini the two will-o-wisp and Virgo Lily in astrology.

 

Marseilles

Although the Rider–Waite Tarot deck is the most often used in occult contexts, other decks such as the Tarot of Marseilles usually used for game-playing have also been read through a symbolic lens. Alejandro Jodorowsky's reading of the Magician as Le Bateleur draws attention to individual details of the Marseilles card, such as the fingers, table, and depiction of the plants, in addition to the elements shared between the Rider–Waite and Marseilles decks.[10] The Magician in the Marseilles deck is depicted with six fingers on his left hand rather than five, which Jodorowsky interprets as a symbol of manipulating and reorganizing reality. Similarly, the table he stands behind has three legs rather than four; the fourth leg is interpreted as being outside the card, a metafictional statement that "[i]t is by going beyond the stage of possibilities and moving into the reality of action and choice that The Magician gives concrete expression to his situation". Rather than flowers, the Magician of the Marseilles deck is depicted with a small plant between his feet. The plant has a yonic appearance and has been interpreted as the sex organs of either a personal mother or the abstract concept of Mother Nature.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magician_(tarot_card)

  

Divination

Like the other cards of the Major Arcana, the Magician is the subject of complex and extensive analysis as to its occult interpretations. On the broad level, the Magician is interpreted with energy, potential, and the manifestation of one's desires; the card symbolizes the meetings of the physical and spiritual worlds ("as above, so below") and the conduit converting spiritual energy into real-world action.

 

Tarot experts have defined the Magician in association with the Fool, which directly precedes it in the sequence; Rachel Pollack refers to the card as "in the image of the trickster-wizard". A particularly important aspect of the card's visual symbolism in the Rider–Waite deck is the magician's hands, with one hand pointing towards the sky and the other towards the earth. Pollack and other writers understand this as a reflection of the Hermetic concept of "as above, so below", where the workings of the macrocosm (the universe as a whole, understood as a living being) and the microcosm (the human being, understood as a universe) are interpreted as inherently intertwined with one another. To Pollack, the Magician is a metaphysical lightning rod, channeling macrocosmic energy into the microcosm.

 

According to A. E. Waite's 1910 book Pictorial Key To The Tarot, the Magician card is associated with the divine motive in man. In particular, Waite interprets the Magician through a Gnostic lens, linking the card's connection with the number eight (which the infinity symbol is visually related to) and the Gnostic concept of the Ogdoad, spiritual rebirth into a hidden eighth celestial realm. Said infinity symbol above the Magician's head is also interpreted as a symbol of the Holy Spirit, the prophetic and theophanic aspect of the Trinity. Like other tarot cards, the symbolism of the Magician is interpreted differently depending on whether the card is drawn in an upright or reversed position. While the upright Magician represents potential and tapping into one's talents, the reversed Magician's potential and talents are unfocused and unmanifested. The reversed Magician can also be interpreted as related to black magick and to madness or mental distress.[14] A particularly important interpretation of the reversed Magician relates to the speculated connection between the experiences recognized in archaic societies as shamanism and those recognized in technological societies as schizophrenia; the reversed Magician is perceived as symbolizing the degree to which those experiences and abilities are unrecognized and suppressed, and the goal is to turn the card 'upright', or re-focus those experiences into their positive form.

 

In art

The Surrealist (Le surréaliste), 1947, is a painting by Victor Brauner. The Juggler provided Brauner with a key prototype for his self-portrait: the Surrealist's large hat, medieval costume, and the position of his arms all derive from this figure who, like Brauner's subject, stands behind a table displaying a knife, a goblet, and coins.

 

www.amazon.fr/Self-Initiation-into-Golden-Dawn-Tradition/...

 

Founding of the First Temple

In October 1887, Westcott claimed to have written to a German countess and prominent Rosicrucian named Anna Sprengel, whose address was said to have been found in the decoded Cipher Manuscripts. According to Westcott, Sprengel claimed the ability to contact certain supernatural entities, known as the Secret Chiefs, that were considered the authorities over any magical order or esoteric organization. Westcott purportedly received a reply from Sprengel granting permission to establish a Golden Dawn temple and conferring honorary grades of Adeptus Exemptus on Westcott, Mathers, and Woodman. The temple was to consist of the five grades outlined in the manuscripts.

 

In 1888, the Isis-Urania Temple was founded in London. In contrast to the S.R.I.A. and Masonry,[6] women were allowed and welcome to participate in the Order in "perfect equality" with men. The Order was more of a philosophical and metaphysical teaching order in its early years. Other than certain rituals and meditations found in the Cipher manuscripts and developed further, "magical practices" were generally not taught at the first temple. For the first four years, the Golden Dawn was one cohesive group later known as the "First Order" or "Outer Order". A "Second Order" or "Inner Order" was established and became active in 1892. The Second Order consisted of members known as "adepts", who had completed the entire course of study for the First Order. The Second Order was formally established under the name Ordo Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis (the Order of the Red Rose and the Golden Cross) Eventually, the Osiris temple in Weston-super-Mare, the Horus temple in Bradford (both in 1888), and the Amen-Ra temple in Edinburgh (1893) were founded. In 1893 Mathers founded the Ahathoor temple in Paris.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn

Secret Chiefs: in various occultist movements, Secret Chiefs are said to be transcendent cosmic authorities, a spiritual hierarchy responsible for the operation and moral calibre of the cosmos, or for overseeing the operations of an esoteric organization that manifests outwardly in the form of a magical order or lodge system. Their names and descriptions have varied through time, differing among those who have claimed experience of contact with them. They are variously held to exist on higher planes of being or to be incarnate; if incarnate, they may be described as being gathered at some special location, such as Shambhala, or scattered through the world working anonymously. One early and influential source on these entities is Karl von Eckartshausen, whose The Cloud upon the Sanctuary, published in 1795, explained in some detail their character and motivations. Several 19th and 20th century occultists claimed to belong to or to have contacted these Secret Chiefs and made these communications known to others: Aleister Crowley (who used the term to refer to members of the upper three grades of his order, A∴A∴), Dion Fortune (who called them the "esoteric order"), and Max Heindel (who called them the "Elder Brothers").

While in Algeria in 1909, Aleister Crowley, along with Victor Neuburg, recited numerous Enochian Calls or Aires. After the fifteenth Aire, he declared that he had attained the grade of Magister Templi (Master of the Temple), which meant that he was now on the level of these Secret Chiefs, although this declaration caused many occultists to stop taking him seriously if they had not done so already. He also described this attainment as a possible and in fact a necessary step for all who truly followed his path.[a] In 1947, when Aleister Crowley died, he left behind a sketch of one of the Secret Chiefs, Crowley's invisible mentor that he called LAM. The sketch looks like a grey alien. The church invisible, invisible church, mystical church or church mystical, is a Christian theological concept of an "invisible" Christian Church of the elect who are known only to God, in contrast to the "visible church"—that is, the institutional body on earth which preaches the gospel and administers the sacraments. Every member of the invisible church is "saved", while the visible church contains all individuals who are saved though also having some who are "unsaved".[1] According to this view, Bible passages such as Matthew 7:21–27, Matthew 13:24–30, and Matthew 24:29–51 speak about this distinction.

 

Views on the relation with Visible church

Distinction between two churches

The first person in church history to introduce a view of an invisible and a visible church is Clement of Alexandria. Some have also argued that Jovinian and Vigilantius held an invisible church view.

 

The concept was advocated by St Augustine of Hippo as part of his refutation of the Donatist sect, though he, as other Church Fathers before him, saw the invisible Church and visible Church as one and the same thing, unlike the later Protestant reformers who did not identify the Catholic Church as the true church.[8] He was strongly influenced by the Platonist belief that true reality is invisible and that, if the visible reflects the invisible, it does so only partially and imperfectly (see theory of forms). Others question whether Augustine really held to some form of an "invisible true Church" concept.

 

The concept was insisted upon during the Protestant reformation as a way of distinguishing between the "visible" Roman Catholic Church, which according to the Reformers was corrupt, and those within it who truly believe, as well as true believers within their own denominations. John Calvin described the church invisible as "that which is actually in God's presence, into which no persons are received but those who are children of God by grace of adoption and true members of Christ by sanctification of the Holy Spirit... [The invisible church] includes not only the saints presently living on earth, but all the elect from the beginning of the world." He continues in contrasting this church with the church scattered throughout the world. "In this church there is a very large mixture of hypocrites, who have nothing of Christ but the name and outward appearance..." (Institutes 4.1.7) Richard Hooker distinguished "between the mystical Church and the visible Church", the former of which is "known only to God."[11]

 

John Wycliffe, who was a precursor to the reformation, also believed in an invisible church made of the predestinated elect. Another precursor of the reformation, Johann Ruchrat von Wesel believed in a distinction between the visible and invisible church.

 

Pietism later took this a step further, with its formulation of ecclesiolae in ecclesia ("little churches within the church").

 

Non-distinction

Roman Catholic theology, reacting against the protestant concept of an invisible Church, emphasized the visible aspect of the Church founded by Christ, but in the twentieth century placed more stress on the interior life of the Church as a supernatural organism, identifying the Church, as in the encyclical Mystici corporis Christi of Pope Pius XII, with the Mystical Body of Christ. In Catholic doctrine, the one true Church is the visible society founded by Christ, namely, the Catholic Church under the global jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome.

  

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This encyclical rejected two extreme views of the Church:

 

A rationalistic or purely sociological understanding of the Church, according to which it is merely a human organization with structures and activities, is mistaken. The visible Church and its structures do exist but the Church is more, as it is guided by the Holy Spirit:

Although the juridical principles, on which the Church rests and is established, derive from the divine constitution given to it by Christ and contribute to the attaining of its supernatural end, nevertheless that which lifts the Society of Christians far above the whole natural order is the Spirit of our Redeemer who penetrates and fills every part of the Church.

An exclusively mystical understanding of the Church is mistaken as well, because a mystical "Christ in us" union would deify its members and mean that the acts of Christians are simultaneously the acts of Christ. The theological concept una mystica persona (one mystical person) refers not to an individual relation but to the unity of Christ with the Church and the unity of its members with him in her. This is where we can find direct contrast to Christian philosophy like the preachings of Rev.Jesse Lee Peterson, yet the personification is similar. There is another view, that contrasts these two school-of-thought, and that is from Albert Eduard Meier, as he includes Electric Theory in his teachings, similar to Creationism.

Eastern Orthodox theologian Vladimir Lossky too characterizes as a "Nestorian ecclesiology" that which would "divide the Church into distinct beings: on the one hand a heavenly and invisible Church, alone true and absolute; on the other, the earthly Church (or rather 'the churches'), imperfect and relative".

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_invisible

  

The fall of the Imperator

 

Florence waits a few days, asks Westcott for an explanation, who calmly denies it, regretting that the witnesses from the first hour are dead. Florence then divulges Mathers' letter to all the Adepts in London, who on March 3 elect a Committee of Seven to hold Mathers to account. Mathers proudly refuses to show any evidence, does not recognize any authority above him except the leaders of the Third Order.

 

On March 23, he dismissed Florence Farr from her duties; on March 29, the Second Order meeting in plenary assembly dismissed Mathers and expelled him from the Golden Dawn, all orders combined. Mathers threatens them with all possible karmic punishments, affirms that one cannot impeach him without his agreement because of magic bonds.

 

Crowley joins him in Paris, comes up against the secession of the Ahatoor temple, and organizes with Mathers a veritable "duel of sorcery" between them and the "rebels". It's tragic to see a mind as vast as Mathers sink in this war of leaders for a power that is crumbling anyway.

 

Each Temple thinks of itself as the sole holder of the "true" rituals, since their personal experiences have been positive (and they were logically positive, given the magnificent work of the founders on the rituals). In addition, each Frater or Soror with a different experience - through the visualization of the Tattvas among other things - feels invested with the duty to "save the true Golden Dawn".

 

This phenomenon of fragmentation was precipitated by the existence of secret working groups within the Order itself, an existence desired by Mathers as early as 1897 for the purpose of deepening the knowledge acquired.

 

Florence Farr had thus founded a group called “La Sphère”. Enter William Butler Yeats, (1865-1939) Irish, future Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923. After having been leader of Isis-Urania, he left the Order in 1901, the same year as the trial of Théo Horos. and his wife for fraud and sexual offenses, trials where the name and practices of the Golden Dawn were called into question with the distorting amplification that you can guess, and above all the publication of pieces of Ritual of the Neophyte where the oath pronounced by the recipient was considered blasphemy.he demoralizing effect on the followers of the Outer Order accentuated the ravages of the war of leaders... In 1902, the Second Order gave itself a triumvirate to lead it: PW Bullock, quickly replaced by Doctor RW Felkin; MW Blackden, Egyptologist, and JW Brodie-Inner.

 

The Breaking of the Golden Dawn

 

They had to fight from the start against Arthur Edward Waite, who, at the head of a group of followers, wanted to modify the system of leadership, for reasons he explained in 1903: to be caliph instead of the caliph, then make The Order give up all magic, overhaul all rituals, and all for good reason: Waite claims the Third Order doesn't exist.

 

Waite and Blackden then founded their own Order, with a temple they named Isis-Urania after the first temple of the Golden Dawn. Brodie-Inner makes his Edinburgh temple independent.

 

Felkin reacts with a magical act: he abolishes the name "Golden Dawn" and gives it the name "Stella Matutina". It is this branch that is the legal (and spiritual?) successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. It is under this name that Dion Fortune or Israel Regardie will know the Order. We are in 1903. The history of the Order is over: begins that of its heirs.The Continuators

 

The Golden Dawn had almost as many successors as the Martinist order of Papus, while having the original branch that survives alongside its imitators.

 

Crowley

 

One of the most famous followers of the spirit of GD is of course Crowley. After founding his Order, Astrum Argentinum, he received the patents of the Ordo Templis Orientiis during one of his many trips to the Orient - from where he also brought back yogas.

 

One of the fundamental designs of the OTO represents an oval containing an Egyptian-style eye at the top, in the middle a beaked dove at the bottom, and at the bottom a Flaming Cup stamped with the Templar cross. He had frequent contact with Rudolf Steiner, who found himself imbued with Golden Dawn for many of his afterlife theories.

  

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

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Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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Das Nagelkreuz von Coventry ist ein christliches Symbol aus der Kathedrale von Coventry. Es soll die Idee der völkerweiten Versöhnung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg in die Welt hinaustragen. Die Geschichte des Nagelkreuzgedankens begann mit dem schweren deutschen Luftangriff auf Coventry vom 14. November 1940, bei dem 550 Menschen starben und bei dem mit großen Teilen der Innenstadt sowie Industrieanlagen auch die spätmittelalterliche St. Michael’s Kathedrale zerstört wurden.

Der damalige Dompropst Richard Howard ließ bei den Aufräumarbeiten drei große Zimmermannsnägel aus dem Dachstuhl der zerstörten Kathedrale, die aus den Trümmern geborgen wurden, zu einem Kreuz zusammensetzen. Er ließ außerdem die Worte „FATHER FORGIVE“ (Vater vergib) in die Chorwand der Ruine meißeln und aus zwei verkohlten Holzbalken ein großes Kreuz zusammensetzen.

In der Ruine der alten Kathedrale ist ein Duplikat des Holzkreuzes zu sehen, das originale Nagelkreuz steht heute in einer künstlerisch gestalteten Weise auf dem Altar der 1962 geweihten neuen Kathedrale. Es gilt als Zeichen der Versöhnung und des Friedens.

Der Gedanke einer Gemeinschaft von Nagelkreuzzentren wurde von Bill Williams, Dompropst in Coventry von 1958 bis 1981, entwickelt. Weltweit haben sich ökumenische Glaubensgemeinschaften als Nagelkreuzgemeinschaft gebildet. Ihr gehören in Deutschland derzeit 63 Orte mit regelmäßigem Versöhnungsgebet in 49 Städten an; weltweit sind es derzeit über 160. In Deutschland können auch Einzelpersonen Mitglied der Nagelkreuzgemeinschaft werden.

Das Nagelkreuz wird von der Kathedrale in Coventry überwiegend an Kirchengemeinden übergeben, um sie in ihrer Versöhnungs- und Friedensarbeit zu stärken. Die Ziele der weltweiten Nagelkreuzgemeinschaft sind nicht ausschließlich auf die Aussöhnung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg ausgerichtet, sondern lauten:

- Wunden der Geschichte heilen,

- Mit Verschiedenheiten leben und die Vielfalt feiern,

- An einer Kultur des Friedens bauen.

Als äußeres Zeichen der Verbundenheit erhält jedes Nagelkreuzzentrum ein Kreuz aus drei Nägeln von Coventry, das dem originalen Kreuz nachgebildet ist.

 

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagelkreuz_von_Coventry

 

A Coventry Cross of Nails is a Christian cross made from iron nails, employed as a symbol of peace and reconciliation. The original version was made from three large medieval nails salvaged from the Coventry Cathedral after the building was severely damaged by German bombs on 14 November 1940, during the Second World War. In the following decades, several hundred crosses have been given as gifts to various organisations, including churches, prisons and schools. The form of the cross echoes the crucifixion of Christ, and the nails with which Christ was affixed to the cross according to some accounts.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry_Cross_of_Nails

 

Die Garnisonkirche (ehemals: Hof- und Garnisonkirche) war eine evangelische Kirche in der historischen Mitte von Potsdam, deren Turm von 2017 bis 2024 wiederaufgebaut wurde. Erbaut im Auftrag des preußischen Königs Friedrich Wilhelm I. nach Plänen des Architekten Philipp Gerlach in den Jahren 1730–1735, galt sie als ein Hauptwerk des norddeutschen Barocks. Mit einer Turmhöhe von fast 90 Metern war sie das höchste Bauwerk Potsdams und prägte im Dreikirchenblick zusammen mit der Nikolaikirche und der Heiliggeistkirche das Stadtbild. Gegen Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde sie 1945 durch einen britischen Luftangriff in der sogenannten Nacht von Potsdam schwer beschädigt und brannte aus. Die Regierung der DDR ließ die gesicherte Ruine 1968 sprengen, um auf einem Teil des Grundstücks das Rechenzentrum Potsdam zu errichten.

Anhänger eines Wiederaufbaus des Gotteshauses traten 2004 mit dem Ruf aus Potsdam an die Öffentlichkeit. In der Folge ihres Engagements wird seit 2017 die kontrovers debattierte Rekonstruktion als offene Stadtkirche und internationales Versöhnungszentrum betrieben. Am Ostermontag 2024 wurde im wiedererrichteten Kirchturm die neue Nagelkreuzkapelle eröffnet. Im August 2024 wurde eine Ausstellung zur Geschichte des Ortes und die Aussichtsplattform in 57 Meter Höhe eröffnet. Noch fehlt dem Turm die Haube, deren Bau aber noch 2025 neben dem Turm begonnen werden und die dann bis 2027 auf den Turm gehoben werden soll. Das Kirchenschiff wird vermutlich, anders als ursprünglich geplant, nicht wieder errichtet, stattdessen wird über ein Veranstaltungszentrum oder auch einen Saal für die Stadtverordnetenversammlung diskutiert. Der Kirchturm ist bereits jetzt der höchste Aussichtspunkt Posdam, die Aussichtsterrasse ist barrierefrei zu erreichen.

Der Wiederaufbau des Turms war stark umstritten, und ist es immer noch, vor allem wegen des sogenannten "Tags von Potsdam" 1933. Bei den Reichstagswahlen vom 5. März 1933, die in einem Klima von Rechtsunsicherheit und Gewalt stattfanden, erhofften sich die Nationalsozialisten die absolute Mehrheit der Stimmen. Damit sollte die Selbstauflösung des Parlaments durchgesetzt werden, um endgültig den Weg in die Diktatur beschreiten zu können. In der Folge des Reichstagsbrandes in der Nacht vom 27. auf den 28. Februar beschloss das Reichskabinett auf Vorschlag Hitlers, die Reichstagseröffnung nach Potsdam zu verlegen. Unter Bezug auf die erste Reichstagseröffnung 1871 durch Kaiser Wilhelm I. im Weißen Saal des Berliner Schlosses wurde der 21. März als Termin festgesetzt. Höhepunkt der Feierlichkeiten war ein Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche mit Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg, Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler, den Mitgliedern seiner Regierung und den Reichstagsabgeordneten mit Ausnahme der Abgeordneten der SPD und der KPD sowie geladenen Gäste aus dem öffentlichen Leben, der Wirtschaft und der Reichswehr. Damit ähnelte die Zusammenkunft dem Empfang der neuen Reichstagsabgeordneten beim Kaiser, wie es vor 1918 der Brauch gewesen war. Der stark von militärischen Traditionen geprägten Staatsakt in Potsdam mit Reden Hindenburgs und Hitlers und einer großen Militärparade wurde reichsweit im Radio live übertragen und von NS-Propagandaminister Joseph Goebbels als Tag von Potsdam inszeniert. Der Handschlag Hitlers und Hindenburgs vor der Garnisonkirche wurde fotografisch festgehalten und später von der NS-Propaganda zum symbolischen Händedruck stilisiert. Die Nazis, die ihre Macht noch nicht gefestigt sahen, sahen im Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche die Chance, eine Annäherung zwischen Hitler und Hindenburg zu inszenieren und die 1932 im Reichspräsidenten-Wahlkampf noch heftige Spaltung des Mitte-Rechts-Lagers, als überwunden darzustellen. Dieses geschichtliche Ereignis und die Interpretation der Kirche als Symbol des preußischen Militarismus waren vermutlich Hauptgrund für den Abriss der wiederaufbaufähigen Ruine im Jahr 1968 durch die DDR-Behörden gewesen.

 

Dieser Text beruht im Wesentlichen auf Wikipedia

 

The Garrison Church (formerly: Court and Garrison Church) was a Protestant church in the historic centre of Potsdam, whose tower was rebuilt from 2017 to 2024. Built by order of the Prussian King Frederick William I according to plans by the architect Philipp Gerlach between 1730 and 1735, it was considered a major work of North German Baroque architecture. With a tower height of almost 90 metres, it was the tallest building in Potsdam and, together with St. Nicholas' and Holy Spirit Churches, dominated the cityscape in what was known as the 'Three-Churches-View' Towards the end of the Second World War, it was badly damaged by a British air raid in 1945 during the so-called Night of Potsdam and burnt out. The GDR government had the secured ruins blown up in 1968 in order to build the Potsdam Computer Centre on part of the site.

Supporters of rebuilding the church went public with the “'Call from Potsdam”' in 2004. As a result of their commitment, the controversially debated reconstruction as an open city church and international reconciliation centre has been underway since 2017. On Easter Monday 2024, the new Chapel of the Cross of Nails was opened in the rebuilt church tower. In August 2024, an exhibition on the history of the site and the viewing platform at a height of 57 metres were opened. The tower is still missing its spire, but construction will begin next to the tower in 2025 and the spire is due to be raised by 2027. The nave of the church will probably not be rebuilt as originally planned, instead there are discussions about an event centre or a hall for the town council meeting. The church tower is already the highest vantage point in Posdam, and the viewing terrace can be reached barrier-free.

The reconstruction of the tower was, and still is, highly controversial, mainly due to the so-called “Day of Potsdam” in 1933. The Nazis hoped to gain an absolute majority of votes in the Reichstag elections of 5 March 1933, which took place in a climate of legal uncertainty and violence. This was intended to force through the self-dissolution of parliament so that they could finally embark on the path to dictatorship. Following the Reichstag fire on the night of 27/28 February, the Reich Cabinet decided, at Hitler's suggestion, to move the opening of the Reichstag to Potsdam. With reference to the first Reichstag opening in 1871 by Emperor Wilhelm I in the White Hall of the Berlin Palace, 21 March was set as the date. The highlight of the celebrations was a state ceremony in the Garrison Church with Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler, the members of his government and the Reichstag deputies, with the exception of the SPD and KPD deputies, as well as invited guests from public life, business and the armed forces. The gathering thus resembled the reception of the new Reichstag deputies by the Kaiser, as had been the custom before 1918. The state ceremony in Potsdam, which was strongly characterised by military traditions, with speeches by Hindenburg and Hitler and a large military parade, was broadcast live on the radio throughout the Reich and staged by Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels as the Day of Potsdam. Hitler and Hindenburg's handshake in front of the Garrison Church was photographed and later stylised by Nazi propaganda as a symbolic handshake. The Nazis, who did not yet see their power consolidated, saw the act of state in the Garrison Church as an opportunity to stage a rapprochement between Hitler and Hindenburg and to present the still fierce division of the centre-right in the 1932 presidential election campaign as having been overcome. This historical event and the interpretation of the church as a symbol of Prussian militarism were probably the main reasons for the demolition of the rebuildable ruins in 1968 by the GDR authorities.

 

This text is mainly based on Wikipedia

   

Heidelberg - Heidelberger Schloss

 

Heidelberg Castle (German: Heidelberger Schloss) is a ruin in Germany and landmark of Heidelberg. The castle ruins are among the most important Renaissance structures north of the Alps.

 

The castle has only been partially rebuilt since its demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is located 80 metres (260 ft) up the northern part of the Königstuhl hillside, and thereby dominates the view of the old downtown. It is served by an intermediate station on the Heidelberger Bergbahn funicular railway that runs from Heidelberg's Kornmarkt to the summit of the Königstuhl.

 

The earliest castle structure was built before 1214 and later expanded into two castles circa 1294; however, in 1537, a lightning bolt destroyed the upper castle. The present structures had been expanded by 1650, before damage by later wars and fires. In 1764, another lightning bolt caused a fire which destroyed some rebuilt sections.

 

Before destruction

 

Early history

 

Heidelberg was first mentioned in 1196 as "Heidelberch". In 1155 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was made the Count Palatine by his half-brother Frederick Barbarossa, and the region became known as the Electoral Palatinate. The claim that Conrad's main residence was on the Schlossberg (Castle Hill), known as the Jettenbühl, cannot be substantiated. The name "Jettenbühl" comes from the soothsayer Jetta, who was said to have lived there. She is also associated with Wolfsbrunnen (Wolf's Spring) and the Heidenloch (Heathens' Well). The first mention of a castle in Heidelberg (Latin: "castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri") is in 1214, when Louis I, Duke of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach received it from Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II. The last mention of a single castle is in 1294. In another document from 1303, two castles are mentioned for the first time:

 

The upper castle on Kleiner Gaisberg Mountain, near today's Hotel Molkenkur (destroyed in 1537);

The lower castle on the Jettenbühl (the present castle site).

 

All that is known about the founding of the lower castle is that it took place sometime between 1294 and 1303. The oldest documented references to Heidelberg Castle are found during the 1600s:

 

The Thesaurus Pictuarum of the Palatinate church counsel Markus zum Lamb (1559 to 1606);

The "Annales Academici Heidelbergenses" by the Heidelberg librarian and professor Pithopoeus (started in 1587);

The "Originum Palatinarum Commentarius" by Marquard Freher (1599);

The "Teutsche Reyssebuch" by Martin Zeiller (Strasbourg 1632, reprinted in 1674 as the "Itinerarium Germaniae").

 

All of these works are for the most part superficial and do not contain much information. In 1615, Merian's Topographia Palatinatus Rheni described Prince Elector Ludwig V as he "started building a new castle one hundred and more years ago". Most of the descriptions of the castle up until the 18th century are based on Merian's information. Under Ruprecht I, the court chapel was erected on the Jettenbühl.

 

Palace of kings

 

When Ruprecht became the King of Germany in 1401, the castle was so small that on his return from his coronation, he had to camp out in the Augustinians' monastery, on the site of today's University Square. What he desired was more space for his entourage and court and to impress his guests, but also additional defences to turn the castle into a fortress.

 

After Ruprecht's death in 1410, his land was divided between his four sons. The Palatinate, the heart of his territories, was given to the eldest son, Ludwig III. Ludwig was the representative of the emperor and the supreme judge, and it was in this capacity that he, after the Council of Constance in 1415 and at the behest of Emperor Sigismund, held the deposed Antipope John XXIII in custody before he was taken to Burg Eichelsheim (today Mannheim-Lindenhof).

 

On a visit to Heidelberg in 1838, the French author Victor Hugo took particular pleasure in strolling among the ruins of the castle. He summarised its history in this letter:

 

But let me talk of its castle. (This is absolutely essential, and I should actually have begun with it.) What times it has been through! Five hundred years long it has been victim to everything that has shaken Europe, and now it has collapsed under its weight. That is because this Heidelberg Castle, the residence of the counts Palatine, who were answerable only to kings, emperors, and popes, and was of too much significance to bend to their whims, but couldn't raise his head without coming into conflict with them, and that is because, in my opinion, that the Heidelberg Castle has always taken up some position of opposition towards the powerful. Circa 1300, the time of its founding, it starts with a Thebes analogy; in Count Rudolf and Emperor Ludwig, these degenerate brothers, it has its Eteocles and its Polynices [warring sons of Oedipus]. Then the prince elector begins to grow in power. In 1400 the Palatine Ruprecht II, supported by three Rhenish prince electors, deposes Emperor Wenceslaus and usurps his position; 120 years later in 1519, Count Palatine Frederick II was to create the young King Charles I of Spain Emperor Charles V.

 

Reformation and the Thirty Years Wars

 

It was during the reign of Louis V, Elector Palatine (1508–1544) that Martin Luther came to Heidelberg to defend one of his theses (Heidelberg Disputation) and paid a visit to the castle. He was shown around by Louis's younger brother, Wolfgang, Count Palatine, and in a letter to his friend George Spalatin praises the castle's beauty and its defenses.

 

In 1619, Protestants rebelling against the Holy Roman Empire offered the crown of Bohemia to Frederick V, Elector Palatine who accepted despite misgivings and in doing so triggered the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. It was during the Thirty Years War that arms were raised against the castle for the first time. This period marks the end of the castle's construction; the centuries to follow brought with them destruction and rebuilding.

 

Destruction

 

After his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620, Frederick V was on the run as an outlaw and had to release his troops prematurely, leaving the Palatinate undefended against General Tilly, the supreme commander of the Imperial and Holy Roman Empire's troops. On 26 August 1622, Tilly commenced his attack on Heidelberg, taking the town on 16 September, and the castle a few days later.

 

When the Swedes captured Heidelberg on 5 May 1633 and opened fire on the castle from the Königstuhl hill behind it, Tilly handed over the castle. The following year, the emperor's troops tried to recapture the castle, but it was not until July 1635 that they succeeded. It remained in their possession until the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years War was signed. The new ruler, Charles Louis (Karl Ludwig) and his family did not move into the ruined castle until 7 October 1649.

 

Victor Hugo summarized these and the following events:

 

In 1619, Frederick V, then a young man, took the crown of the kings of Bohemia, against the will of the emperor, and in 1687, Philip William, Count Palatine, by then an old man, assumes the title of prince-elector, against the will of the king of France. This was to cause Heidelberg battles and never-ending tribuluations, the Thirty Years War, Gustav Adolfs Ruhmesblatt and finally the War of the Grand Alliance, the Turennes mission. All of these terrible events have blighted the castle. Three emperors, Louis the Bavarian, Adolf of Nassau, and Leopold of Austria, have laid siege to it; Pio II condemned it; Louis XIV wreaked havoc on it.

— quoted from Victor Hugo: "Heidelberg"

 

Nine Years' War

 

After the death of Charles II, Elector Palatine, the last in line of the House of Palatinate-Simmern, Louis XIV of France demanded the surrender of the allodial title in favor of the Duchess of Orléans, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine who he claimed was the rightful heir to the Simmern lands. On 29 September 1688, the French troops marched into the Palatinate of the Rhine and on 24 October moved into Heidelberg, which had been deserted by Philipp Wilhelm, the new Elector Palatine from the line of Palatinate-Neuburg. At war against the allied European powers, France's war council decided to destroy all fortifications and to lay waste to the Palatinate (Brûlez le Palatinat!), in order to prevent an enemy attack from this area. As the French withdrew from the castle on 2 March 1689, they set fire to it and blew the front off the Fat Tower. Portions of the town were also burned, but the mercy of a French general, René de Froulay de Tessé, who told the townspeople to set small fires in their homes to create smoke and the illusion of widespread burning, prevented wider destruction.

 

Immediately upon his accession in 1690, Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine had the walls and towers rebuilt. When the French again reached the gates of Heidelberg in 1691 and 1692, the town's defenses were so good that they did not gain entry. On 18 May 1693 the French were yet again at the town's gates and took it on 22 May. However, they did not attain control of the castle and destroyed the town in attempt to weaken the castle's main support base. The castle's occupants capitulated the next day. Now the French took the opportunity to finish off the work started in 1689, after their hurried exit from the town. The towers and walls that had survived the last wave of destruction, were blown up with mines.

 

Removal of the court to Mannheim

 

In 1697 the Treaty of Ryswick was signed, marking the end of the War of the Grand Alliance and finally bringing peace to the town. Plans were made to pull down the castle and to reuse parts of it for a new palace in the valley. When difficulties with this plan became apparent, the castle was patched up. At the same time, Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine played with the idea of completely redesigning the castle, but shelved the project due to lack of funds. He did, however, install his favorite court jester, Perkeo of Heidelberg to famously watch over the castle's wine stock. Perkeo later became the unofficial mascot of the city. In 1720, he came into conflict with the town's Protestants as a result of fully handing over the Church of the Holy Spirit to the Catholics (it had previously been split by a partition and used by both congregations), the Catholic prince-elector moved his court to Mannheim and lost all interest in the castle. When on 12 April 1720, Charles announced the removal of the court and all its administrative bodies to Mannheim, he wished that "Grass may grow on her streets".

 

The religious conflict was probably only one reason for the move to Mannheim. In addition, converting the old-fashioned hill-top castle into a Baroque palace would have been difficult and costly. By moving down into the plain, the prince-elector was able to construct a new palace, Mannheim Palace, that met his every wish.

 

Karl Phillip's successor Karl Theodor planned to move his court back to Heidelberg Castle. However, on 24 June 1764, lightning struck the Saalbau (court building) twice in a row, again setting the castle on fire, which he regarded as a sign from heaven and changed his plans. Victor Hugo, who had come to love the ruins of the castle, also saw it as a divine signal:

 

One could even say that the very heavens had intervened. On 23 June 1764, the day before Karl Theodor was to move into the castle and make it his seat (which, by the bye, would have been a great disaster, for if Karl Theodor had spent his thirty years there, these austere ruins which we today so admire would certainly have been decorated in the pompadour style); on this day, then, with the prince's furnishings already arrived and waiting in the Church of the Holy Spirit, fire from heaven hit the octagonal tower, set light to the roof, and destroyed this five-hundred-year-old castle in very few hours.

— Victor Hugo, Heidelberg

 

In the following decades, basic repairs were made, but Heidelberg Castle remained essentially a ruin.

 

Since destruction

 

Slow decay and Romantic enthusiasm

 

In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria in addition to the Palatinate and removed his court from Mannheim to Munich. Heidelberg Castle receded even further from his thoughts and the rooms which had still had roofs were taken over by craftsmen. Even as early as 1767, the south wall was quarried for stone to build Schwetzingen Castle. In 1784, the vaults in the Ottoheinrich wing were filled in, and the castle used as a source of building materials.

 

As a result of the German mediatisation of 1803, Heidelberg and Mannheim became part of Baden. Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden welcomed the addition to his territory, although he regarded Heidelberg Castle as an unwanted addition. The structure was decaying and the townsfolk were helping themselves to stone, wood, and iron from the castle to build their own houses. The statuary and ornaments were also fair game. August von Kotzebue expressed his indignation in 1803 at the government of Baden's intention to pull down the ruins. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ruined castle had become a symbol for the patriotic movement against Napoleon.

 

Even before 1800, artists had come to see the river, the hills and the ruins of the castle as an ideal ensemble. The best depictions are those of England's J. M. W. Turner, who stayed in Heidelberg several times between 1817 and 1844, and painted Heidelberg and the castle many times. He and his fellow Romantic painters were not interested in faithful portrayals of the building and gave artistic licence free rein. For example, Turner's paintings of the castle show it perched far higher up on the hill than it actually is.

 

The saviour of the castle was the French count Charles de Graimberg. He fought the government of Baden, which viewed the castle as an "old ruin with a multitude of tasteless, crumbling ornaments", for the preservation of the building. Until 1822, he served as a voluntary castle warden, and lived for a while in the Glass Wing (Gläserner Saalbau), where he could keep an eye on the courtyard. Long before the origin of historic preservation in Germany, he was the first person to take an interest in the conservation and documentation of the castle, which may never have occurred to any of the Romantics. Graimberg asked Thomas A. Leger to prepare the first castle guide. With his pictures of the castle, of which many copies were produced, Graimberg promoted the castle ruins and drew many tourists to the town.

 

Planning and restoration

 

The question of whether the castle should be completely restored was discussed for a long time. In 1868, the poet Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter argued for a complete reconstruction, leading to a strong backlash in public meetings and in the press.

 

In 1883, the Grand Duchy of Baden established a "Castle field office", supervised by building director Josef Durm in Karlsruhe, district building supervisor Julius Koch and architect Fritz Seitz. The office made a detailed plan for preserving or repairing the main building. They completed their work in 1890, which led a commission of specialists from across Germany to decide that while a complete or partial rebuilding of the castle was not possible, it was possible to preserve it in its current condition. Only the Friedrich Building, whose interiors were fire damaged, but not ruined, would be restored. This reconstruction was done from 1897 to 1900 by Karl Schäfer at the enormous cost of 520,000 Marks.

 

Castle ruins and tourism

 

The oldest description of Heidelberg from 1465 mentions that the city is "frequented by strangers", but it did not really become a tourist attraction until the beginning of the 19th century. Count Graimberg made the castle a pervasive subject for pictures which became forerunners of the postcard. At the same time, the castle was also found on souvenir cups. Tourism received a big boost when Heidelberg was connected to the railway network in 1840.

 

Mark Twain, the American author, described the Heidelberg Castle in his 1880 travel book A Tramp Abroad:

 

A ruin must be rightly situated, to be effective. This one could not have been better placed. It stands upon a commanding elevation, it is buried in green woods, there is no level ground about it, but, on the contrary, there are wooded terraces upon terraces, and one looks down through shining leaves into profound chasms and abysses where twilight reigns and the sun cannot intrude. Nature knows how to garnish a ruin to get the best effect. One of these old towers is split down the middle, and one half has tumbled aside. It tumbled in such a way as to establish itself in a picturesque attitude. Then all it lacked was a fitting drapery, and Nature has furnished that; she has robed the rugged mass in flowers and verdure, and made it a charm to the eye. The standing half exposes its arched and cavernous rooms to you, like open, toothless mouths; there, too, the vines and flowers have done their work of grace. The rear portion of the tower has not been neglected, either, but is clothed with a clinging garment of polished ivy which hides the wounds and stains of time. Even the top is not left bare, but is crowned with a flourishing group of trees & shrubs. Misfortune has done for this old tower what it has done for the human character sometimes – improved it.

— Mark Twain

 

In the 20th century, Americans spread Heidelberg's reputation outside Europe. Thus, Japanese also often visit the Heidelberg Castle during their trips to Europe. Heidelberg has, at the beginning of the 21st century, more than three million visitors a year and about 1,000,000 overnight stays. Most of the foreign visitors come either from the USA or Japan. The most important attraction, according to surveys by the Geographical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, is the castle with its observation terraces.

 

Chronology

 

Timeline of events for Heidelberg Castle:

 

1225: first documented mention as "Castrum".

1303: mention of two castles.

1537: destruction of the upper castle by lightning bolt.

1610: creation of the palace garden ("Hortus Palatinus").

1622: Tilly conquers city and castle in the Thirty Years War.

1642: renewal of the Castle plants.

1688/1689: destruction by French troops.

1693: renewed destruction in the Palatinate succession war.

1697: (start) reconstruction.

1720: transfer of the residence to Mannheim.

1742: (start) reconstruction.

1764: destruction by lightning bolt.

1810: Charles de Graimberg dedicates himself to the preservation of the Castle ruins.

1860: first Castle lighting.

1883: establishment of the "office of building of castles of Baden."

1890: stocktaking by Julius Koch and Fritz Seitz.

1900: (circa) restorations and historical development.

 

(Wikipedi)

 

Das Heidelberger Schloss ist eine der berühmtesten Ruinen Deutschlands und das Wahrzeichen der Stadt Heidelberg. Bis zu seiner Zerstörung im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg war es die Residenz der Kurfürsten von der Pfalz. Seit den Zerstörungen durch die Soldaten Ludwigs XIV. 1689 und der Sprengung durch französische Pioniere am 6. September 1693 wurde das Heidelberger Schloss nur teilweise restauriert. Nachdem am 24. Juni 1764 Blitze die teilweise renovierte Anlage in Brand gesetzt hatten, wurde die Wiederherstellung aufgegeben. Die Schlossruine aus rotem Neckartäler Sandstein erhebt sich 80 Meter über dem Talgrund am Nordhang des Königstuhls und dominiert von dort das Bild der Altstadt. Der Ottheinrichsbau, einer der Palastbauten des Schlosses, zählt zu den bedeutendsten Bauwerken des deutschen Manierismus. In der kulturgeschichtlichen Epoche der Romantik wurde die Schlossruine zu einem Inbegriff einer vergangenen und bewundernswerten Epoche stilisiert. Es zählt heute zu den meistbesuchten touristischen Sehenswürdigkeiten Europas.

 

Geschichte

 

Bis zu den Zerstörungen

 

Erste Erwähnungen

 

Um das Jahr 1182 verlegte Konrad der Staufer, Halbbruder von Kaiser Friedrich I. Barbarossa und seit 1156 Pfalzgraf bei Rhein, seine Hofhaltung von der Burg Stahleck bei Bacharach am Mittelrhein auf die Burg Heidelberg, seinem Sitz als Vogt des Klosters Schönau im Odenwald.

 

Die Stadt Heidelberg wird im Jahr 1196 zum ersten Mal in einer Urkunde genannt. Eine Burg in Heidelberg („castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri“) wird im Jahr 1225 erwähnt, als Ludwig der Kelheimer diese Burg vom Bischof Heinrich von Worms als Lehen erhielt. 1214 waren die Herzöge von Bayern aus dem Haus Wittelsbach mit der Pfalzgrafschaft belehnt worden.

 

Von einer Burg ist zuletzt im Jahr 1294 die Rede. In einer Urkunde des Jahres 1303 werden zum ersten Mal zwei Burgen aufgeführt: die obere Burg auf dem Kleinen Gaisberg bei der jetzigen Molkenkur und die untere Burg auf dem Jettenbühl. Lange Zeit hatte sich deshalb in der Forschung die Auffassung durchgesetzt, dass die Gründung der unteren Burg zwischen 1294 und 1303 entstanden sein müsse, zumal die vom Schlossbaubüro in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts akribisch durchgeführte Bauaufnahme zum Schluss gelangte, dass die Bausubstanz keine Datierung des Schlosses vor das 15. Jahrhundert gerechtfertigt habe. Aufgrund von Architekturfunden und neueren bauarchäologischen Untersuchungen wird in der jüngeren Forschung zum Heidelberger Schloss die Entstehung der unteren Burg dagegen mittlerweile auf die erste Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts datiert. Bereits 1897 wurde ein vermauertes spätromanisches Fenster in der Trennwand zwischen Gläsernem Saalbau und Friedrichsbau entdeckt. 1976 förderten Ausschachtungsarbeiten an der Nordostecke des Ruprechtbaues in einer um 1400 abgelagerten Schutt- und Abbruchschicht ein Fensterfragment in Form eines Kleeblattbogens zutage, wie es sich in ähnlicher Form in den Arkadenfenstern der Burg Wildenberg findet. Eine im Jahr 1999 im Bereich des Ludwigsbaus durchgeführte archäologische Untersuchung verdichtete die Hinweise auf eine Bebauung des Schlossareals in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts.

 

Die ältesten Werke, die das Heidelberger Schloss erwähnen, sind:

 

der Thesaurus Picturarum des pfälzischen Kirchenrats Markus zum Lamb (1559 bis 1606)

die Annales Academici Heidelbergenses des Heidelberger Bibliothekars und Professors Pithopoeus (1587 begonnen)

der Originum Palatinarum Commentarius von Marquard Freher (1599)

das Teutsche Reyssebuch von Martin Zeiller (Straßburg 1632, als Itinerarium Germaniae 1674 wieder abgedruckt)

 

Alle diese Werke sind meist oberflächlich und enthalten nichts Ernsthaftes. Anders verhält es sich mit Matthäus Merian Topographia Palatinatus Rheni aus dem Jahr 1615, in der Kurfürst Ludwig V. als derjenige genannt wird, der „vor hundert und etlichen Jahren hat ein neu Schloß angefangen zu bauen“. Auf Merians Angaben stützen sich die meisten Beschreibungen des Schlosses bis ins 18. Jahrhundert hinein. Das Bestreben, die Gründungszeit des Schlosses weiter rückwärts zu verlegen, führt später zu Hinweisen, dass bereits unter Ruprecht I. die berühmte Hofkapelle auf dem Jettenbühl errichtet worden sei.

Königsschloss und Papstgefängnis

 

Als Ruprecht III. im Jahr 1401 Deutscher König (Ruprecht I.) wurde, herrschte im Schloss so großer Raummangel, dass er bei seiner Rückkehr von der Königskrönung sein Hoflager im Augustinerkloster (heute: Universitätsplatz) aufschlagen musste. Jetzt galt es, Raum zur Repräsentation und zur Unterbringung des Beamten- und Hofstaates zu schaffen. Gleichzeitig musste die Burg zu einer Festung ausgebaut werden. Etwa aus der Zeit Ruprechts III. stammen die ältesten heute sichtbaren Teile des Schlosses.

 

Nach Ruprechts Tod im Jahr 1410 wurde der Herrschaftsbereich unter seinen vier Söhnen aufgeteilt. Die pfälzischen Stammlande gingen an den ältesten Sohn Ludwig III. Nach dem Konzil von Konstanz brachte dieser als Stellvertreter des Kaisers und oberster Richter im Jahr 1415 im Auftrag König Sigismunds den abgesetzten Papst Johannes XXIII. auf dem Schloss in Gewahrsam, bevor er auf Burg Eichelsheim (heute Mannheim-Lindenhof) gebracht wurde.

 

Der französische Dichter Victor Hugo besuchte 1838 Heidelberg und spazierte dabei besonders gerne in den Ruinen des Schlosses herum, dessen Geschichte er in einem Brief zusammenfasst:

 

„Lassen Sie mich nur von seinem Schloß sprechen. (Das ist absolut unerläßlich, und eigentlich hätte ich damit beginnen sollen). Was hat es nicht alles durchgemacht! Fünfhundert Jahre lang hat es die Rückwirkungen von allem hinnehmen müssen, was Europa erschüttert hat, und am Ende ist es darunter zusammengebrochen. Das liegt daran, daß dieses Heidelberger Schloß, die Residenz des Pfalzgrafen, der über sich nur Könige, Kaiser und Päpste hatte und zu bedeutend war, um sich unter deren Füßen zu krümmen, aber nicht den Kopf heben konnte, ohne mit ihnen aneinanderzugeraten, das liegt daran, meine ich, daß das Heidelberger Schloß immer irgendeine Oppositionshaltung gegenüber den Mächtigen eingenommen hat. Schon um 1300, der Zeit seiner Gründung, beginnt es mit einer Thebais; in dem Grafen Rudolf und dem Kaiser Ludwig, diesen beiden entarteten Brüdern, hat es seinen Eteokles und seinen Polyneikes. Darin nimmt der Kurfürst an Macht zu. Im Jahre 1400 setzt der Pfälzer Ruprecht II., unterstützt von drei rheinischen Kurfürsten, Kaiser Wenzeslaus ab und nimmt dessen Stelle ein; hundertzwanzig Jahre später, 1519, sollte Pfalzgraf Friedrich II. den jungen König Karl I. von Spanien zu Kaiser Karl V. machen.“

 

– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg

 

Badisch-Pfälzischer Krieg

 

Im Badisch-Pfälzischen Krieg 1462 setzte Kurfürst Friedrich I. von der Pfalz (der „Pfälzer Fritz“) den Markgrafen Karl I. von Baden, den Bischof Georg von Metz und den Grafen Ulrich V. von Württemberg auf dem Schloss fest. Friedrich ließ die Gefangenen bei harter Kost in Ketten legen, bis sie bereit waren, die geforderten Lösegeldzahlungen zu leisten. Markgraf Karl I. musste zur Freilassung 25.000 Gulden zahlen, seinen Anteil an der Grafschaft Sponheim als Pfand abgeben und Pforzheim zum pfälzischen Lehen erklären. Der Metzer Bischof musste 45.000 Gulden zahlen. Das Wichtigste war aber, dass Friedrich I. von der Pfalz seinen Anspruch als Kurfürst gesichert hatte. Die Sage berichtet, Friedrich habe seinen unfreiwilligen Gästen das Fehlen von Brot bei der Mahlzeit dadurch begreiflich gemacht, dass er sie durch das Fenster auf das verwüstete Land hinab blicken ließ. Dies wird in einem Gedicht von Gustav Schwab mit dem Titel „Das Mahl zu Heidelberg“ nacherzählt.

 

Reformation und Dreißigjähriger Krieg

 

Während der Regierung Ludwigs V. besichtigte Martin Luther, der zu einer Verteidigung seiner Thesen (Heidelberger Disputation) nach Heidelberg gekommen war, das Schloss. Er wurde dabei von Pfalzgraf Wolfgang, dem Bruder Ludwigs V., herumgeführt und lobte später in einem Brief an seinen Freund Georg Spalatin vom 18. Mai 1518 die Schönheit und kriegerische Ausrüstung des Schlosses.

 

Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg flogen zum ersten Mal Kugeln gegen das Heidelberger Schloss. Hiermit endet auch die eigentliche Geschichte des Schlossbaus. Die folgenden Jahrhunderte bringen hauptsächlich Zerstörungen und Wiederherstellungen.

 

Friedrich V. von der Pfalz nahm – trotz vieler Bedenken – die Königswürde von Böhmen an und löste damit eine Katastrophe aus. Nach der Schlacht am Weißen Berg war er als Geächteter auf der Flucht und hatte voreilig seine Truppen entlassen, so dass General Tilly, der Oberbefehlshaber der katholischen Liga-Truppen im Dienst des Kurfürsten von Bayern, eine unverteidigte Pfalz vor sich hatte. Am 26. August 1622 eröffnete er die Beschießung Heidelbergs und nahm am 16. September die Stadt und wenige Tage darauf das Schloss ein. Nachdem die Schweden am 5. Mai 1633 die Stadt Heidelberg eingenommen und vom Königstuhl aus das Feuer auf das Schloss eröffnet hatten, übergab der kaiserliche Kommandant am 26. Mai 1633 die Festung an die Schweden. Nach der schweren Niederlage der Schweden in der Schlacht bei Nördlingen im September 1634 besetzten Truppen des Kaisers erneut die Stadt. In der Absicht, das Schloss zu sprengen, wurden innerhalb von 14 Tagen 24 Tonnen Pulver in Stollen unter den Mauern des Schlosses deponiert. Das überraschende Erscheinen einer französischen Armee mit 30.000 Mann verhinderte die geplante Sprengung. Erst im Juli 1635 kam die Stadt erneut in die Gewalt der kaiserlichen Truppen, in der es dann bis zum Friedensschluss blieb. Erst am 7. Oktober 1649 zog der neue Herrscher wieder in das zerstörte Stammschloss seiner Familie ein.

 

Im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg

 

Der französische König Ludwig XIV. verlangte nach dem Tode des kinderlosen Kurfürsten Karl II., des letzten Fürsten der Linie Pfalz-Simmern, im Namen der Herzogin von Orléans die Herausgabe des pfälzischen Allodialgutes. Am 29. September 1688 rückten die französischen Heere im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg in die Pfalz und zogen am 24. Oktober in das von Philipp Wilhelm, dem neuen Kurfürsten aus der Linie Pfalz-Neuburg, verlassene Heidelberg ein.

 

Gegen die verbündeten europäischen Mächte beschloss der französische Kriegsrat, durch Zerstörung aller Festungswerke und durch Verwüstung des pfälzischen Landes dem Feinde die Möglichkeit des Angriffes von dieser Gegend her zu entziehen. Beim Ausrücken aus der Stadt am 2. März 1689 steckten die Franzosen das Schloss und auch die Stadt an vielen Ecken zugleich in Brand.

 

Johann Wilhelm ließ sofort nach seinem Einzug in die verwüstete Stadt die Mauern und Türme wiederherstellen. Als die Franzosen 1691 und 1692 erneut bis vor die Tore Heidelbergs gelangten, fanden sie die Stadt in einem so guten Verteidigungszustand vor, dass sie unverrichteter Dinge abziehen mussten. Am 18. Mai 1693 standen die Franzosen allerdings wieder vor der Stadt und nahmen sie am 22. Mai ein. Sie versuchten vermutlich, mit der Zerstörung der Stadt die Hauptoperationsbasis gegen das Schloss zu schaffen. Am folgenden Tage kapitulierte die Schlossbesatzung, und nun holten die Franzosen nach, was sie 1689 in der Eile ihres Abzugs nur unvollständig ausgeführt hatten: Sie sprengten nun durch Minen die Türme und Mauern, die beim letzten Mal der Zerstörung entgangen waren. Das Heidelberger Schloss wurde eine Ruine.

 

Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim

 

Der Frieden von Rijswijk, mit dem der Pfälzische Erbfolgekrieg beendet wurde, brachte im Jahr 1697 endlich etwas Ruhe. Es war geplant, das Schloss abzureißen und die brauchbaren Teile zur Errichtung eines neuen Palastes im Tal zu verwenden. Als sich aber der Durchführung dieses Planes Schwierigkeiten entgegenstellten, wurde das Schloss notdürftig wiederhergestellt. Gleichzeitig trug sich Karl Philipp mit dem Gedanken eines vollständigen Umbaues des Schlosses, aber der Mangel an finanziellen Mitteln schob dieses Projekt auf, und als der Kurfürst 1720 mit den Protestanten der Stadt wegen Überlassung der Heiliggeistkirche an die Katholiken in Streit geriet, der die Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim zur Folge hatte, endete das Interesse des Kurfürsten am Heidelberger Schloss. Seine Absicht war es, die Heiliggeistkirche zur katholischen Hofkirche umzuwidmen, was die Heidelberger Reformierten mit allen Mitteln zu verhindern suchten. Als er am 12. April 1720 die Verlegung seiner Residenz mit allen Behörden nach Mannheim verkündete, überließ der Kurfürst die alte Hauptstadt ihrem Schicksal und wünschte ihr, dass „Gras auf ihren Straßen wachsen“ solle. Der religiöse Konflikt war vermutlich aber nur der letzte Anstoß gewesen, das alte, schwer zu einer barocken Anlage umzubauende Bergschloss aufzugeben und in die Ebene zu ziehen, wo er eine ganz seinem Willen entspringende Neugründung vornehmen konnte.

 

Sein Nachfolger Karl Theodor plante vorübergehend, seinen Wohnsitz wieder ins Heidelberger Schloss zu verlegen. Er nahm davon allerdings wieder Abstand, als am 24. Juni 1764 der Blitz zweimal hintereinander in den Saalbau einschlug und das Schloss abermals brannte. Victor Hugo hielt dies später für einen Wink des Himmels:

 

„Man könnte sogar sagen, daß der Himmel sich eingemischt hat. Am 23. Juni 1764, einen Tag, bevor Karl-Theodor in das Schloß einziehen und es zu seiner Residenz machen sollte (was, nebenbei gesagt, ein großes Unglück gewesen wäre; denn wenn Karl-Theodor seine dreißig Jahre dort verbracht hätte, wäre die strenge Ruine, die wir heute bewundern, sicher mit einer schrecklichen Pompadour-Verzierung versehen worden), an diesem Vortag also, als die Möbel des Fürsten bereits vor der Tür, in der Heiliggeistkirche, standen, traf das Feuer des Himmels den achteckigen Turm, setzte das Dach in Brand und zerstörte in wenigen Stunden dieses fünfhundert Jahre alte Schloß.“

 

– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg.

 

In den folgenden Jahrzehnten wurden zwar noch notwendige Erneuerungen vorgenommen, aber das Heidelberger Schloss blieb von nun an hauptsächlich eine Ruine.

 

Seit den Zerstörungen

 

Langsamer Zerfall und romantische Begeisterung

 

Im Jahr 1777 verlegte Kurfürst Karl Theodor seine Residenz von Mannheim nach München. Damit verlor er das Heidelberger Schloss noch mehr aus den Augen. Die überdachten Räume wurden nun von Handwerksbetrieben genutzt. Schon 1767 hatte man begonnen, die Quader des Südwalles als Baumaterial für das Schwetzinger Schloss zu verwenden. Im Jahr 1784 wurden gar die Gewölbe im Erdgeschoss des Ottheinrichsbaus eingelegt und das Schloss als Steinbruch verwendet.

 

Durch den Reichsdeputationshauptschluss von 1803 gingen Heidelberg und Mannheim an Baden über. Der große Gebietszuwachs war Großherzog Karl Friedrich willkommen, das Heidelberger Schloss betrachtete er jedoch als unerwünschte Zugabe. Die Bauten verfielen, Heidelberger Bürger holten aus dem Schloss Steine, Holz und Eisen zum Bau ihrer Häuser. Auch Figuren und Verzierungen wurden abgeschlagen. August von Kotzebue äußerte sich 1803 voller Empörung über die Absicht der badischen Regierung, die Ruinen abtragen zu lassen. Das zerstörte Schloss wurde am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts zum Sinnbild für die patriotische Gesinnung, die sich gegen die napoleonische Unterdrückung richtete.

 

Schon vor 1800 erkannten Maler und Zeichner in der Schlossruine und der bergigen Flusslandschaft ein idealtypisches Ensemble. Den Höhepunkt bilden die Gemälde des Engländers William Turner, der sich zwischen 1817 und 1844 mehrfach in Heidelberg aufhielt und etliche Gemälde von Heidelberg und dem Schloss anfertigte. Ihm und anderen Künstlern der Romantik ging es dabei nicht um eine detailgetreue Bauaufnahme. Sie pflegten eher einen recht freien Umgang mit der Wirklichkeit. So ist bei seinem Gemälde des Schlosses das Gelände mehrfach überhöht dargestellt.

 

Der Begriff Romantik wurde von dem Philosophen Friedrich Schlegel Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts zu einer Universalpoesie erklärt – ein literaturtheoretischer Begriff aus der Frühromantik. In ihr würden alle Künste und Gattungen zu einer Form verschmelzen. Jedoch wandelte sich dies im allgemeinen Verständnis zu einem verklärenden sentimentalen Gefühl der Sehnsucht. Diese Empfindung fand insbesondere in der sogenannten Heidelberger Romantik ihren Ausdruck. So zum Beispiel in Liedersammlungen der Autoren Achim von Arnim und Clemens Brentano, die sich oft in Heidelberg aufhielten. Landschaftsmaler machten die Schlossreste zum zentralen Motiv ihrer Gemälde, in denen häufig das Anmutige der umgebenden Landschaft in Kontrast gestellt wurde zum Feierlich-Düsteren der Ruine. Clemens Brentano dichtete:

 

„Und da ich um die Ecke bog, – ein kühles Lüftlein mir entgegen zog – Der Neckar rauscht aus grünen Hallen – Und giebt am Fels ein freudig Schallen, – Die Stadt streckt sich den Fluss hinunter, – Mit viel Geräusch und lärmt ganz munter, – Und drüber an grüner Berge Brust, – Ruht groß das Schloss und sieht die Lust.“

 

– Clemens Brentano: Lied von eines Studenten Ankunft in Heidelberg und seinem Traum auf der Brücke, worin ein schöner Dialogus zwischen Frau Pallas und Karl Theodor.

 

Die auf Poetik beruhenden Konzepte der Romantik wurden in brieflichen Diskussionen zwischen Achim und Jacob Grimm über das Verhältnis von Natur- und Kunstpoesie entwickelt. Abkehrend von den Elementen der Reflexion, Kritik und Rhetorik in der Kunstpoesie, beschäftigt sich die „Heidelberger Romantik“ mit der Naturpoesie. Im Laufe des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde Heidelberg mit seinem Schloss und der heimischen Natur auch bei Reisenden und Wanderern zunehmend bekannt und beliebt. Stadt und Schloss wurden zum Inbegriff romantischer Stimmung.

 

Der Retter des Schlosses war der französische Graf Charles de Graimberg. Er kämpfte gegen Pläne der badischen Regierung, für die das Heidelberger Schloss das „alte Gemäuer mit seinen vielfältigen, geschmacklosen, ruinösen Verzierungen“ war, für die Erhaltung der Schlossruinen. Er versah bis 1822 das Amt eines freiwilligen Schlosswächters und wohnte eine Zeit lang im Vorbau des Gläsernen Saalbaues, von dem aus er den Schlosshof am besten übersehen konnte. Lange bevor es in Deutschland eine Denkmalpflege gab, war er der erste, der sich um den Erhalt und die Dokumentation des Schlosses kümmerte, als bei der romantischen Schwärmerei noch niemand daran dachte, den Verfall zu unterbinden. In Auftrag Graimbergs verfasste Thomas A. Leger den ersten Schlossführer. Mit seinen in hoher Auflage produzierten druckgraphischen Ansichten verhalf Graimberg der Schlossruine zu einem Bekanntheitsgrad, der den Tourismus nach Heidelberg lenkte.

 

Bestandsaufnahme und Restaurierung – der Heidelberger Schlossstreit

 

Die Frage, ob das Schloss vollständig wiederhergestellt werden solle, führte zu langen Diskussionen. Der Dichter Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter machte sich im Jahr 1868 für eine vollständige Erneuerung stark und rief damit heftige Reaktionen hervor, die in der Presse und in Versammlungen ausgetragen wurden. Aus dem Streit um den richtigen Umgang mit der Schlossruine entwickelte sich eine Grundsatzdiskussion über die Aufgaben der Denkmalpflege. Die Ergebnisse dieser Debatte, die als der „Heidelberger Schlossstreit“ in die Geschichte eingegangen sind, prägten die Prinzipien der Bewahrung historischer Bauwerke nachhaltig.

 

Die Großherzogliche badische Regierung errichtete im Jahr 1883 ein Schloßbaubüro, das unter Oberaufsicht des Baudirektors Josef Durm in Karlsruhe vom Bezirksbauinspektor Julius Koch und dem Architekten Fritz Seitz geleitet wurde. Aufgabe des Büros war es, eine möglichst genaue Bestandsaufnahme zu machen und zugleich Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung oder Instandsetzung der Hauptgebäude vorzuschlagen. Die Arbeiten dieses Büros endeten 1890 und bildeten die Grundlage für eine Kommission von Fachleuten aus ganz Deutschland. Die Kommission kam zu der einhelligen Überzeugung, dass eine völlige oder teilweise Wiederherstellung des Schlosses nicht in Betracht komme, dagegen eine Erhaltung des jetzigen Zustandes mit allen Mitteln zu erstreben sei. Nur der Friedrichsbau, dessen Innenräume zwar durch Feuer zerstört worden waren, der aber nie Ruine war, sollte wiederhergestellt werden. Diese Wiederherstellung geschah schließlich in der Zeit von 1897 bis 1900 durch Carl Schäfer mit dem enormen Kostenaufwand von 520.000 Mark. Im Jahr 2019 entspricht der Aufwand Inflationsbereinigt 3.700.000 €.

 

Schlossruine und Tourismus

 

Schon die älteste Beschreibung Heidelbergs aus dem Jahr 1465 erwähnt, dass die Stadt „vielbesucht von Fremden“ sei. Doch ein eigentlicher Städtetourismus setzte frühestens zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts ein. Graf Graimberg sorgte mit seinen Zeichnungen dafür, dass das Schloss als Bildmotiv eine große Verbreitung fand. Sie wurden praktisch zu Vorläufern der Postkarte. Zur gleichen Zeit gab es auch schon das Schloss als Souvenir auf Tassen. Den entscheidenden Schub erhielt der Tourismus aber erst mit dem Anschluss Heidelbergs ans Eisenbahnnetz im Jahr 1840.

 

Mark Twain beschrieb 1878 in seinem Buch Bummel durch Europa (A Tramp Abroad) das Heidelberger Schloss folgendermaßen:

 

„Um gut zu wirken, muss eine Ruine den richtigen Standort haben. Diese hier hätte nicht günstiger gelegen sein können. Sie steht auf einer die Umgebung beherrschenden Höhe, sie ist in grünen Wäldern verborgen, um sie herum gibt es keinen ebenen Grund, sondern im Gegenteil bewaldete Terrassen, man blickt durch glänzende Blätter in tiefe Klüfte und Abgründe hinab, wo Dämmer herrscht und die Sonne nicht eindringen kann. Die Natur versteht es, eine Ruine zu schmücken, um die beste Wirkung zu erzielen.“

 

– Mark Twain: Bummel durch Europa.

 

Bei einem am 18. Mai 1978 verübten Brandanschlag, der den Revolutionären Zellen zugerechnet wird, entstand ein Sachschaden von 97.000 DM am Schloss.

 

Im 20. Jahrhundert verfielen die US-Amerikaner noch mehr dem Heidelberg-Mythos und trugen ihn hinaus in die Welt. So kommt es, dass auch viele andere Nationalitäten das Heidelberger Schloss auf ihren Kurzreisen durch Europa zu den wenigen Zwischenstopps zählen.

 

Heidelberg hat zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts jährlich mehr als eine Million Besucher und etwa 900.000 Übernachtungen. Wichtigster Anlaufpunkt ist laut einer Befragung des geografischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg das Schloss mit seinen Aussichtsterrassen.

 

Das Heidelberger Schloss zählt heute zu den landeseigenen Monumenten und wird von der Einrichtung „Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg“ betreut. Aus dem Landesinfrastrukturprogramm Baden-Württemberg wurden für den Neubau eines von Max Dudler entworfenen Besucherzentrums 3 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung gestellt. Es wurde 2012 eröffnet.

 

Zudem ist das Schloss nach Angaben der Schlösserverwaltung das größte Fledermaus-Winterquartier in Nordbaden. Wegen der dort überwinternden Zwergfledermaus sowie dem Großen Mausohr wurde im Jahr 2016 der im Stückgarten vor dem Schloss stattfindende Teil des Weihnachtsmarktes auf den Friedrich-Ebert-Platz verlegt.

 

(Wikipdia)

Christian Inspirational Movie | ''Awoken'' | What Is the Meaning of Life? (English Dubbed Movie)

 

www.holyspiritspeaks.org/videos/awoken/

 

Her name is Chen Xi, and since she was little the education and influence of her parents and her schooling made her always want to stand out from the crowd and seek to be above others, so she was diligent in her studies and would spare no effort. After believing in God Chen Xi read a great deal of God's words and came to understand some truths. She saw that the only correct path in life is to believe in and follow God and became an enthusiastic seeker, and was very proactive in performing her duty. Chen Xi went abroad in 2016 to escape the pursuit and persecution of the Chinese Communist government, and needed to use English when performing her duty of spreading the gospel and bearing witness to God's work in

the last days. She felt honored, and that she was a rare talent. Just as she was filled with confidence and was thinking of really making a place for herself in the church, she discovered that her brothers and sisters shared fellowship on God's words with light and that they had a better grasp of English than her. She didn't want to fall behind, so in order to surpass others and be looked up to and commended by them, she redoubled her learning efforts. A bit of time passed but she still didn't match up to the others. Chen Xi could not accept this reality and she found herself living every day within the pain of struggling for her name and personal benefit. She no longer had the heart to pursue the truth or focus on entry into life, and she was particularly unable to perform her duty well. She fell into pessimism and disappointment…. It was then that she came in front of God in prayer and read His words—the judgment and chastisement of His words awakened her soul and allowed her to clearly see the essence of reputation and status as well as the consequences of her being bound and afflicted by these things. She came to understand the significance of performing her duty, the true value of life, and what kind of life is true happiness. From then on she began to have proper goals to pursue and no longer be subject to the strictures of face or status. She also began to focus on pursuing the truth and fulfilling the duty of a creature to repay God's love …

  

Christian Music Video | Feel the Love of God | "When You Open Your Heart to God"

 

www.holyspiritspeaks.org/videos/open-your-heart-to-god-mv/

 

When You Open Your Heart to God

 

When you do not understand God and do not know His nature,

 

your hearts can never truly open, open up to God.

 

Once you understand your God,

 

you will understand what's in His heart,

 

and savor what lies in Him

 

with all your faith and heed.

 

When you savor what is in God's heart, bit by bit,

 

day by day,

 

when you savor what is in God's heart,

 

your heart will open up to Him.

 

When your heart is truly open,

 

when your heart is truly open,

 

you will see the contempt,

 

you will see the shame of your extravagant and selfish requests.

 

When your heart is truly open,

 

when your heart is truly open,

 

you will see an infinite world in God's heart,

 

and be in a realm of wonder untold.

 

In this realm there is no cheating,

 

no deception, no darkness, and no evil.

 

There is only sincerity and faithfulness;

 

only righteousness and kindness.

 

He is love, He is caring,

 

infinite compassion.

 

In your life, joy is felt,

 

when you open your heart to God.

 

His wisdom and power fill the infinite world,

 

so do His authority and love.

 

You can see what God has and is,

 

what brings Him joy,

 

what brings Him woes, what brings Him sadness and anger,

 

is there for all to see,

 

when you open your heart up to God

 

and invite Him in.

 

from The Word Appears in the Flesh

 

Eastern Lightning, The Church of Almighty God was created because of the appearance and work of Almighty God, the second coming of the Lord Jesus=, Christ of the last days. It is made up of all those who accept Almighty God's work in the last days and are conquered and saved by His words. It was entirely founded by Almighty God personally and is led by Him as the Shepherd. It was definitely not created by a person. Christ is the truth, the way, and the life. God's sheep hear God's voice. As long as you read the words of Almighty God, you will see God has appeared.

 

Terms of Use en.godfootsteps.org/disclaimer.html

  

Saint Peter The Rock...a tribute in charcoal by expressionist artist Stephen B. Whatley created with prayers today, February 22,2020, known as the Feast of The Chair of St Peter.

 

The Feast commemorates the mission of teacher and pastor bestowed upon Peter The Apostle by Jesus Christ. Saint Peter is often portrayed with 'the keys to Heaven'.

 

Stephen B. Whatley is a devout Catholic convert and his deep faith has its root in his fight to survive the early tragic loss of his mother; to whom there is a tribute page on his website.

 

The British artist often feels what he calls a 'Divine Push' to paint tributes to Jesus, Our Lady & The Saints on significant landmark years or Feast Days - like today - and to share them.

 

Dependent on prayer, especially to the Holy Spirit - his 2013 exhibition at London's Westminster Cathedral was called "Paintings From Prayer".

 

The eclectic work of Stephen B. Whatley is in collections worldwide & public collections including BBC Heritage, London Transport Museum, Newman University (UK), Westminster Cathedra and The Royal Collection of HM Queen Elizabeth II - whilst his series of 30 paintings commissioned by the Tower of London in 2000 are permanently reproduced throughout Tower Hill Underpass, outside Tower Hill Station - the main entrance to the Tower of London.

 

Blessings of strength, courage, peace and security through Saint Peter & The Rock, Jesus ~

 

Saint Peter The Rock. 2020 by Stephen B. Whatley

Charcoal on paper, 23.4 x 16.5in/59 x 42cm

www.stephenbwhatley.com

en.godfootsteps.org/videos/only-God-loves-man-most-hymn.html

Introduction

English Christian Song | The Love of God Is Great | "Only God Loves Man Most"

 

God becomes flesh in the last days to save man for He loves man.

 

Driven by His love, He carries out today’s work.

 

It’s under the foundation of love.

 

God takes on flesh and suffers disgrace to save the tainted and broken ones.

 

He endures such pain.

 

For again and again, He shows His immeasurable love.

 

God doesn’t want any soul to be lost.

 

Man doesn’t care what his future will be.

 

Man doesn’t know how to cherish his own life.

 

But God does. Only He loves man. Oh … oh …

 

God’s words heal, encourage man.

 

They judge and curse, disclose and promise.

 

No matter what His words say, it comes from His love.

 

This is the essence of His work.

 

Why do so many follow closely? Why are they so full of energy?

 

God’s love and salvation, they all have seen.

 

God’s timing is perfect. He never delays.

 

God doesn’t want any soul to be lost.

 

Man doesn’t care what his future will be.

 

Man doesn’t know how to cherish his own life.

 

But God does. Oh, yes, He does. Only He loves man.

 

Man thinks he loves himself the most. But what kind of love is this?

 

God’s love is the most real, you will feel.

 

If God had not become flesh, guided and lived with man all the time,

 

it would be hard for them to know God’s love.

 

God doesn’t want any soul to be lost.

 

Man doesn’t care what his future will be.

 

Man doesn’t know how to cherish his own life.

 

But God does. Oh, yes, He does. Only God loves man.

 

Yes, only God loves man. Oh, yes, He does.

 

He loves man so. He loves man so.

Eastern Lightning, The Church of Almighty God was created because of the appearance and work of Almighty God, the second coming of the Lord Jesus, Christ of the last days. It is made up of all those who accept Almighty God's work in the last days and are conquered and saved by His words. It was entirely founded by Almighty God personally and is led by Him as the Shepherd. It was definitely not created by a person. Christ is the truth, the way, and the life. God's sheep hear God's voice. As long as you read the words of Almighty God, you will see God has appeared.

Terms of Use： en.godfootsteps.org/disclaimer.html

Experimental Salvation

by Arthur Pink

  

SALVATION may be viewed from many angles—and contemplated under various aspects. But from whatever side we look at it we must ever remember that "Salvation is of the Lord!" Salvation was planned by the Father for His elect before the foundation of the world. It was purchased for them by the holy life and vicarious death of His incarnate Son. It is applied to and wrought in them by His Holy Spirit. It is known and enjoyed through the study of the Scriptures, through the exercise of faith, and through communion with the triune Jehovah.

 

Now it is greatly to be feared that there are multitudes in Christendom who truly imagine and sincerely believe, that they are among the saved—yet who are total strangers to a work of divine grace in their hearts. It is one thing to have clear intellectual conceptions of God's truth—but it is quite another matter to have a personal, real heart acquaintance with it. It is one thing to believe that sin is the dreadful thing that the Bible says it is—but it is quite another matter to have a holy horror and hatred of it, in the soul. It is one thing to know that God requires repentance—but it is quite another matter to experimentally mourn and groan over our vileness. It is one thing to believe that Christ is the only Savior for sinners—but it is quite another matter to really trust Him from the heart. It is one thing to believe that Christ is the Sum of all excellency—but it is quite another matter to LOVE Him above all others. It is one thing to believe that God is the great and holy One—but it is quite another matter to truly reverence and fear Him. It is one thing to believe that salvation is of the Lord—but it is quite another matter to become an actual partaker of it through His gracious workings.

 

While it is true that Holy Scripture insists on man's responsibility—and that all through Scripture, God deals with the sinner as an accountable being; yet it is also true that the Bible plainly and constantly shows that no son of Adam has ever measured up to his responsibility, that every person has miserably failed to discharge his accountability. It is this which constitutes the deep need for GOD to work in the sinner—and to do for him what he is unable to do for himself. "Those who are in the flesh cannot please God" (Rom 8:8). The sinner is "without strength" (Rom 5:6). Apart from the Lord, we "can do nothing" (John 15:5).

 

While it is true that the Gospel issues a call and a command to all who hear it—it is also true that ALL disregard that call and disobey that command, "They all with one consent began to make excuse!" (Luke 14:18). This is where the sinner commits his greatest sin and most manifests his awful enmity against God and His Christ: that when a Savior, suited to his needs, is presented to him, he "despises and rejects" Him! (Isa 53:3).

 

This is where the sinner shows what an incorrigible rebel he is, and demonstrates that he is deserving only of eternal torments. But it is just at this point that God manifests His sovereign and wondrous GRACE. He not only planned and provided salvation, but he actually bestows it upon those whom He has chosen!

 

Now this bestowal of salvation is far more than a mere proclamation that salvation is to be found in the Lord Jesus: it is very much more than an invitation for sinners to receive Christ as their Savior. It is God actually saving His people! It is His own sovereign and all-powerful work of grace toward and in those who are entirely destitute of merit, and who are so depraved in themselves that they will not and cannot take one step to the obtaining of salvation! Those who have been actually saved, owe far more to divine grace, than most of them realize! It is not only that Christ died to put away their sins—but also the Holy Spirit has wrought a work in them—a work which applies to them, the virtues of Christ's atoning death!

 

It is just at this point that so many preachers fail in their exposition of the Truth. While many of them affirm that Christ is the only Savior for sinners, they also teach that He actually became ours only by our consent. While they allow that conviction of sin is the Holy Spirit's work and that He alone shows us our lost condition and need of Christ—yet they also insist that the decisive factor in salvation is man's own will. But the Holy Scriptures teach that "salvation is of the Lord!" (Jonah 2:9), and that nothing of the creature enters into it at any point. Only that can satisfy God—which has been produced by God Himself! Though it is true that salvation does not become the personal portion of the sinner until he has, from the heart, believed in the Lord Jesus Christ—yet that very BELIEVING is wrought in him by the Holy Spirit: "By grace are you saved through faith, and that NOT OF YOURSELVES; it is the gift of God" (Eph 2:8).

 

It is exceedingly solemn to discover that there is a "believing" in Christ by the natural man, which is NOT a believing unto salvation. Just as the Buddists believe in Budda—so in Christendom there are multitudes who believe in Christ. And this "believing" is something more than an intellectual one. Often there is much feeling connected with it—the emotions may be deeply stirred. Christ taught in the Parable of the Sower that there is a class of people who hear the Word and with joy receive it—yet have they no root in themselves (Matt 13:20, 21). This is fearfully solemn, for it is still occurring daily!

 

Scriptures also tell us that Herod heard John "gladly." Thus, the mere fact that the reader of these pages enjoys listening to some sound gospel preacher is no proof at all that he is a regenerated soul. The Lord Jesus said to the Pharisees concerning John the Baptist, "You were willing for a season to rejoice in his light," yet the sequel shows clearly that no real work of grace had been wrought in them. And these things are recorded in Scripture as solemn warnings!

 

It is striking and solemn to mark the exact wording in the last two Scriptures referred to. Note the repeated personal pronoun in Mark 6:20: "For Herod feared 'John' [not 'God'!], knowing that he as a just man and a holy, and observed him; and when he heard him, he did many things, and heard him gladly." It was the personality of John which attracted Herod. How often is this the case today! People are charmed by the personality of the preacher: they are carried away by his style and won by his earnestness for souls. But if there is nothing more than this—there will one day be a crude awakening for them! That which is vital, is a "love for the truth," not for the one who presents it. It is this which distinguishes the true people of God from the "mixed multitude" who ever associate with them.

 

So in John 5:35 Christ said to the Pharisees concerning His forerunner: "You were willing for a season to rejoice in his light," not "in the light"! In like manner, there are many today who listen to one whom God enables to open up some of the mysteries and wonders of His Word—and they rejoice "in his light" while in the dark themselves, never having personally received "an anointing from the Holy One." Those who do "love the truth" (2 Thess 2:10) are they in whom a divine work of grace has been wrought. They have something more than a clear, intellectual understanding of the Scripture. The Bible becomes the food of their souls, the joy of their hearts (Jer 15:16). They love the truth, and because they do so, they hate error and shun it as deadly poison. They are jealous for the glory of the Author of the Word, and will not sit under a minister whose teaching dishonors Him; they will not listen to preaching which exalts man into the place of supremacy, so that he is the decider of his own destiny.

 

"Lord, You will ordain peace for us: for You also have wrought all our works in us" (Isa 26:12). Here is the heart and unqualified confession of the true people of God. Note the preposition: "You also have wrought all our works in us." This speaks of a divine work of grace wrought in the heart of the saint. Nor is this text alone. Weigh carefully the following: "It pleased God, who separated me from my mother's womb, and called me by His grace, to reveal His Son in me" (Gal 1:15, 16).

 

"Unto Him who is able to do exceeding abundantly above all that we ask or think, according to the power that works in us" (Eph 3:20). "Being confident of this very thing, that He who has begun a good work in you will perform it" (Phil 1:6). "It is God who works in you both to will and to do of His good pleasure" (Phil 2:13). "I will put My laws into their hearts, and in their minds will I write them" (Heb 10: 16). "Now the God of peace...make you perfect in every good work to do His will, working in you that which is well pleasing in His sight" (Heb 13:20). Here are seven passages which speak of the inward workings of God's grace; or in other words of experimental salvation.

 

"Lord, You will ordain peace for us: for You also have wrought all our works in us" (Isa 26:12). Is there an echoing response in our heart to this, my reader? Is your repentance something deeper than the remorse and tears of the natural man? Does it have its root in a divine work of grace which the Holy Spirit has wrought in your soul? Is your believing in Christ something more than an intellectual one? Is your relation to Him something more vital than what some act of yours has brought about, having been made one with Him by the power and operation of the Holy Spirit? Is your love for Christ something more than a pious sentiment, like that of the Romanist who sings of the "gentle" and "sweet" Jesus? Does your love for Him proceed from an altogether new nature, that God has created within you? Can you really say with the Psalmist: "Whom have I in heaven but You? And there is none upon earth that I desire beside You."

 

Is your profession accompanied by true meekness and lowliness of heart? It is easy to say, "I am an unworthy and unprofitable creature." But do you realize yourself to be such? Do you feel yourself to be "less than the least of all saints?" Paul did! If you do not; if instead, you deem yourself superior to the rank and file of Christians, who bemoan their failures, confess their weakness, and cry, "O wretched man that I am!"—there is grave reason to conclude you are a stranger to God!

 

That which distinguishes genuine godliness from human religiousness is this: the one is internal, the other external. Christ complained of the Pharisees, "Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You clean the outside of the cup and dish, but inside they are full of greed and self-indulgence!" (Matt 23:25). A carnal religion is all on the surface. It is at the heart God looks—and with the heart God deals. Concerning His people He says: "I will put My laws into their hearts, and in their minds will I write them" (Heb 10:16).

 

"Lord, You will ordain peace for us: for You also have wrought all our works in us." How humbling is this to the pride of man! It makes everything of God—and nothing of the creature!

 

The tendency of human nature the world over, is to be self-sufficient and self-satisfied; to say with the Laodiceans, "I am rich, and increased with goods—and have need of nothing" (Rev 3:17). But here is something to humble us—and empty us of pride. Since God has wrought all our works in us, then we have no ground for boasting. "For who makes you different from anyone else? What do you have that you did not receive? And if you did receive it, why do you boast as though you did not?" (1 Cor 4:7).

 

And who are the ones in whom God thus works? From the divine side—His favored, chosen, redeemed people. From the human side—those who, in themselves have no claim whatever on His notice; who are destitute of any merit; who have everything in them to provoke His holy wrath; those who are miserable failures in their lives, and utterly depraved and corrupt in their persons. But where sin abounded, grace did much more abound—and did for them and in them what they would not and could not do for themselves!

 

And what is it which God "works" in His people? All their works!

 

First, He quickens them: "It is the Spirit who quickens; the flesh profits nothing" (John 6:63). "He gave us a new birth by the message of truth" (James 1:18).

 

Second, He bestows repentance: "Him has God exalted with His right hand to be a Prince and a Savior, for to give repentance to Israel" (Acts 5:31). "God has granted even the Gentiles repentance unto life" (Acts 11:18; 2 Tim 2:25).

 

Third, He gives faith: "For by grace are you saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God" (Eph 2:8).

 

Fourth, He grants a spiritual understanding: "And we know the Son of God has come, and has given us an understanding, that we may know Him who is true" (I John 5:20).

 

Fifth, He effectuates our service: "I labored more abundantly than they all: yet not I, but the grace of God which was with me" (I Cor 15:10).

 

Sixth, He secures our perseverance: "who are kept by the power of God through faith unto salvation" (I Pet 1:5).

 

Seventh, He produces our fruit: "From Me is your fruit found" (Hosea 14:8). "The fruit of the Spirit" (Gal 5:22). Yes, He has wrought all our works in us!

 

Why has God thus "wrought all our works in us?"

 

First, because unless He had done so—all would have eternally perished! (Rom 9:29). We were "without strength," unable to meet God's righteous demands. Therefore, in sovereign grace, He did for us—what we ought but could not do for ourselves.

 

Second, that all the glory might be His. God is a jealous God. He says so. His honor He will not share with another. By this means He secures all the praise, and we have no ground for boasting.

 

Third, that our salvation might be effectually and securely accomplished. Were any part of our salvation left to us—it would be neither effectual nor secure. Whatever man touches he spoils: failure is written across everything he attempts. But what God does is perfect and lasts forever: "I know that everything God does will endure forever; nothing can be added to it and nothing taken from it. God does it so that men will revere him" (Eccl 3:14).

 

But how may I be sure that my works have been "wrought in me" by God? Mainly by their effects. If you have been born again, you have a new nature within. This new nature is spiritual and contrary to the flesh—contrary in its desires and aspirations. Because the old and new natures are contrary to each other, there is a continual war between them. Are you conscious of this inward conflict?

 

If your repentance is a God-wrought one, then you abhor yourself. If your repentance is a genuine and spiritual one, then you marvel that God did not cast you into hell long ago. If your repentance is the gift of Christ, then you daily mourn the wretched returns which you make to God's wondrous grace; you hate sin, you sorrow in secret before God for your manifold transgressions. Not simply do you do so at conversion, but daily do so now.

 

If your faith is a God-communicated one, it is evidenced by your turning away from all creature confidences, by a renunciation of your own self-righteousness, by a repudiation of all your own works. If your faith is "the faith of God's elect" (Titus 1:1), then you are resting alone on Christ as the ground of your acceptance before God. If your faith is the result of "the operation of God," then you implicitly believe His Word, you receive it with meekness, you crucify reason, and accept all He has said with childlike simplicity.

 

If your love for Christ is the fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:25), then it evidences itself by constantly seeking to please Him, and by abstaining from what you know is displeasing to Him: in a word, by an obedient walk. If your love for Christ is the love of "the new man," then you pant after Him, you yearn for communion with Him above everything else. If your love for Christ is the same in kind (though not in degree) as His love for you, then you are eagerly looking forward to His glorious appearing, when He shall come again to receive His people unto Himself, that they may be forever with the Lord.

 

May the grace of spiritual discernment be given the reader to see whether his Christian profession is real or a sham; whether his hope is built upon the Rock of Ages or the quicksands of human resolutions, efforts, decisions, or feelings; whether, in short, his salvation is "Of the Lord"—or the vain imagination of his own deceitful heart!

  

Evidences of Salvation

by James Smith

  

Many real believers are often distressed and troubled, on account of . . .

the weakness of their faith,

the strength of their fears, and

their mistakes in reference to their interest in Christ.

 

They look for too much in self, and for too little in Christ.

 

To avoid soul deception — they are apt to run into gloom and despondency. They look for certain evidences in themselves, and because they do not find those they look for — they conclude they have none; and giving way to the temptations of Satan, they . . .

distress their own souls,

dishonor the Lord Jesus, and

reflect badly on the grace of God.

 

They doubt not the ability of Christ — but they question his willingness to save. If the testimony of scripture assures me he is able to save — it is to encourage me to approach him and cast my soul upon him — and if he assures me he will never cast out — it is to disperse my fears, remove my doubts, and draw me to his mercy-seat with confidence and courage. There is no saving religion in doubting — though many who are truly godly do doubt. Slavish fear never honors a God of love — yet many who desire to honor him give way to groundless fears.

  

1. One evidence of true salvation is CONVICTION OF SIN. Conviction of sin in the conduct — and of sin in the heart. We are all sinners — but only a few know what sin is, and what a fearful thing it is to be a sinner. Sin is . . .

the breach of the divine law,

an insult offered to every one of the divine attributes,

and that horrible thing which God hates.

 

Sin . . .

is rooted in our nature,

grows with our growth,

strengthens with our strength,

flows from our hearts as naturally as water from a fountain, or light from the body of the sun.

 

Every action we have performed,

every word we have spoken,

every thought we have conceived—

has been defiled by sin, and deserves eternal death!

 

The nature of sin is most dreadful, and the effects of sin are most fearful. But man untaught of God has no such views of sin, or of himself as polluted by it; but when the Holy Spirit quickens and enlightens the immortal mind, when he brings home the law as the standard of holiness and the rule of conduct — then the sinner discovers his state, and fears the consequences. He is alarmed, distressed, and inquires, "Who, what can save me?" He fears his sins are too numerous and aggravated to be pardoned, being ignorant of the extent of the grace of God, and the infinite merit of the blood of Christ. He fears presumption — and he dreads despair. He cannot laugh at sin or longer trifle with eternity; he can no more dare the justice or slight the mercy of God. He is concerned for his safety, being conscious of his danger. He longs for a pardon, being convinced of his guilt. He trembles at the thought of justice — but hopes when he hears of mercy. Sensible of his lost condition, he presents the heartfelt prayer, "God be merciful to me a sinner!"

 

But we are not to judge our conviction of sin by its depths — but by its nature. If it drives us to despair, then it is natural. But if it drives us to Jesus, then it is spiritual. If your conviction . . .

leads you to see your need of a Savior,

prevents your resting on anything but Christ Jesus,

leads you frankly to confess your crimes before God,

and to seek for salvation solely by the grace of God—

then they are spiritual convictions, and the evidence of spiritual life. None could produce them, but the Holy Spirit; and none ever experience them, but those whose names are written in the Lamb's book of life!

 

2. In close connection with conviction of sin, is hatred to sin, loathing ourselves on account of sin. If we see sin in the light of the Lord — then we must hate it. If we see ourselves as polluted and defiled by sin — then we must loathe ourselves on account of it. Finding sin to be rooted in our nature, and seeing it occasionally break out notwithstanding our striving and watching against it — will stop our mouths from boasting, and prevent our excusing ourselves. We shall see sin as our fault — as well as our disease; as our crime — as much as our misery. And feeling inclined at times to favor it, and secretly wishing we were at liberty to indulge in it — will make us abhor ourselves and repent in dust and ashes! The former is from the corruption of nature — and the latter from the principle of divine grace.

 

The Christian hates sin in all — but mostly in himself; and while he wishes the world to be freed from it — he would give a world if he could but get rid of it! It is sin in himself, which grieves him:

sin in his prayers,

sin in his praises,

sin in his purposes,

sin in his duties,

sin in all he does!

 

And seeing no hope of complete sanctification on this side the grave, he cries, "I loathe it, I loathe it, I would not live always!" As sin is forbidden, he dares not indulge it. As the object of his hatred, he naturally forsakes it. He cannot but lament that sin is in his nature, and grieve before God when it appears in his conduct. If sin is the object of your hatred, if self is loathed because it is sinful — then it is evident you are born of God; for except a man be born from above — he cannot loathe self, hate sin, and forsake it. In order to do this, he must have a new nature, and that nature must be holy and divine.

  

3. An appetite for divine things is a scriptural evidence of grace. "Blessed are those who hunger and thirst after righteousness — for they shall be filled." If we can find satisfaction, pleasure, and delight only in the things of the world — then we are dead in sin; dead while we live. But if instead thereof, we are thirsting for God, to . . .

enjoy his presence,

feel his love,

receive his blessing, and

walk in the light of his countenance —

if we are hungering for Jesus as the bread of life,

and if nothing but Jesus himself can satisfy us —

then we are certainly blessed.

 

"Blessed are those who hunger and thirst after righteousness — for they shall be filled." This promise is plain, positive, and certain; and every hungry soul may derive comfort therefrom. When Jesus is the chief object of our desire, and the blessings he communicates are the principle things in our estimation — then there is divine life in the soul. For dead men have no desire or appetite for natural things; so people spiritually dead have no appetite for spiritual things. If nothing but Christ can satisfy us — then we "have been born again, not of perishable seed, but of imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God!" 1 Peter 1:23

  

4. An entire willingness to be saved in God's way; that is, by free grace through the blood of Jesus — is an evidence of divine life in the soul. No man in a state of nature is willing to be saved as a poor debtor by a Surety; as a miserable sinner by a gracious Savior. Man would rather perish in sin, than be saved in this way! Hence our Redeemer testified, "You will not come unto me that you might have life." "The carnal mind is enmity against God, it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be."

 

Self, works, and merit — must be entirely renounced! We must heartily surrender ourselves into the hands of Jesus to be . . .

washed in his blood,

clothed in his righteousness,

and sanctified by his Spirit —

or we reject God's method of salvation.

 

But if we are willing to do this, there can be no doubt but God has been working in us, to will and to do of his good pleasure. The promise in our experience is then fulfilled, "Your people shall be willing in the day of your power." Fallen human nature will not approve of God's plan, which makes man nothing — and Christ all in all. Nor will the carnal mind accept salvation on any such terms. Consequently if we are willing, heartily willing to be saved from wrath through him, and prove that willingness by our conduct — we doubtless have the Holy Spirit in us.

  

5. If in addition to this, we are made honest and SINCERE; and being sensible of the ignorance of our minds and deceitfulness of our hearts — we come to the light of God's word, and to his glorious throne, praying, "Search me, O God, and know my heart, try me, and know my thoughts; and see if there is any wicked way in me, and lead me in the everlasting way!" The sincere Christian dreads deception, and desires to make his "calling and election sure;" he shuns presumption, and would avoid the possibility of mistake. He therefore, bares his conscience to the word of God, and would not play the hypocrite upon any consideration.

 

Honesty and sincerity of heart in reference to our eternal concerns, is a most important blessing; none possess it but those who are "called, and chosen, and faithful;" and if we are made honest in this sense, it is the grace of God which brings salvation that has made us so, and it is clear we are called with a holy calling.

  

6. FAITH in Jesus is an evidence of salvation; not believing that he is my Savior, that he "loved me and gave himself for me;" for this is rather the effect of faith than faith itself. Faith is the eye of the soul which discovers the blessing which Jesus has to bestow; and the hand which is stretched out to receive it. Believing in Jesus is . . .

venturing my soul upon his work,

trusting my whole self in his hands,

committing myself to him to be saved in his way, to his glory, as he is revealed in the everlasting gospel.

 

I feel that I am a sinner, and subscribe to all that God says in his holy word, respecting man as a sinner. I hear of Jesus as both able and willing to save, and I go to him in the exercises of my soul and cry, "Lord, save me!" I gather his answer from his word, and am enabled to lay hold on it by the Holy Spirit.

 

It requires no depth of wisdom, or mighty effort of mind to believe in Jesus. We simply . . .

credit his word,

confide in his faithfulness,

trust his atonement, and

look for the mercy of God unto eternal life.

 

Believing in him — we confess him as the Savior God has appointed, the Savior on whom we rely; and if we "confess with the mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in the heart that God has raised him from the dead — we shall be saved."

 

Reader, believe on the Lord Jesus Christ — and you shall be saved, for "Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life — but whoever rejects the Son will not see life, for God's wrath remains on him." John 3:36

 

Are you afraid? Do doubts arise in your mind? The difficulty in your mind arises from misapprehension. You needed a Savior, the gospel informs you of Jesus, who is just suited to your need, and assures you that he will receive and save you. And what is faith? Just receiving this statement and acting upon it. It is . . .

going to Jesus as directed,

receiving Christ as he is presented,

looking to him as invited, and

trusting in him as you are exhorted to do.

 

Every looking Israelite was healed, and every looking sinner shall be saved — the very looking to Jesus is faith, and proves your saving interest in the promise, "whoever believes shall receive remission of sins."

  

7. Love is an evidence of salvation.

 

Love to JESUS is an evidence of interest in the covenant of mercy — love flows from faith. If I believe what the Scriptures say of Jesus, as to the glory of his person, the tenderness of his heart, and the fullness of his grace — then I shall go to him to prove the truth of these important statements, and proving the truth of these precious declarations — how can I do otherwise than love him. If I question his loveliness or his love to me — then I cannot love him; and this is the cause why many of the Lord's little ones droop, and doubt, and fear. They question the truth of his word, and consequently the love of Jesus to them; this contracts and hardens the heart, and if they would give a world to feel love to Jesus. They cannot feel it, until brought cordially to admit the truth of what the scriptures testify in reference to the love and loveliness of Jesus — and then their frozen hearts will melt, and they will love him, because he first loved them.

 

But we must not always judge of love by warmth of feeling. There has been much warmth, where there has been but little sincere love. We must judge by the habitual state of our heart toward him.

 

Do you desire above all things to love him, and to be conformed to his will? Are you willing to part with all things for him, and unreservedly trust yourself with him? This is love; when I can trust my eternal interests in his hands, and endeavor constantly to keep his commandments.

 

Love to HIS PEOPLE because they are his, and are like him — is an infallible evidence of the new birth. "We know that we have passed from death unto life, because we love the brethren." If I love the picture — it is because I know and love the original. I could not love saint as a saint — if I did not know and love Jesus as the Savior of his people. If saints were more like Christ, then we would love them more. But as it is, though they are surrounded with infirmities, we love them; and are consequently entitled to be numbered with them, and to participate in all their joys and sorrows.

 

If we love Jesus supremely, and saints affectionately — then it is clear that we are created anew in Christ Jesus unto good works.

  

8. Humility proves we are the blessed of the Lord. If we are humbled under a sense of our sin, ignorance, and desert — we shall . . .

flee for refuge to the Lord Jesus,

receive with meekness the engrafted word;

and ascribe all our salvation to grace!

 

Nothing but the power of the Spirit of God can effectually . . .

humble the proud heart of man,

shut his mouth before God,

cause him with self-abhorrence to cry, "Guilty, guilty!"

and bring him to receive the kingdom of God as a little child.

 

Man will be something — but grace makes him nothing. It is the greatest mortification to proud nature, to be indebted to another for salvation, or to go to Heaven as a poor pauper, entirely dependant on the work of Jesus.

 

To renounce our own judgment,

to submit to be taught of God,

to believe the Word because God speaks it, and

to cleave to Jesus with full purpose of heart —

is genuine humility. The man has nothing to say against the demands or sentence of the holy law; and nothing to object to the provision or requirements of the glorious gospel. But he casts himself entirely on the . . .

unmerited mercy,

rich grace, and

promised compassion of Jehovah.

 

To this man, will Jehovah look with pleasure and approbation, and with him will he take up his abode. He walks humbly with his God. "Though the Lord is high — yet has he respect unto the lowly." "Blessed are the poor in in spirit — for theirs is the kingdom or Heaven."

 

9. He who is truly humbled under a sense of sin — pants, prays, and seeks for HOLINESS. He is as much concerned to be sanctified, as saved. He sees . . .

a beauty in holiness — and longs to possess it,

deformity in sin — and seeks to be delivered from it.

 

He mourns over the sins of others — but more over his own sin. Sin and Hell are always associated in his mind. He views . . .

sin as the root — and Hell as the tree;

sin as the fountain — and Hell as the stream naturally flowing from it.

 

Every man creates his own Hell — but no man can create his own Heaven. The true Christian must long to be holy — the precepts require it, and the principle of life within him pants for it with inextinguishable ardor. If he could but be holy, he would be happy, therefore he cries, "I shall be satisfied when I awake up in your likeness!" He avoids sin — and desires to be arrayed in all the graces of the Spirit, in all the beauties of holiness. He would be the personification of faith, love, humility and godly zeal. This desire for holiness is a certain evidence of godliness; for "without holiness no man shall see the Lord."

  

10. Godly FEAR is a covenant blessing, and a proof that we are of God. If we fear God with a filial fear, we fear to offend him and desire above all things to please him. It is not what will men say — but shall I hereby please God? We are taught in his word how to walk and to please him, and godly fear always prompts us to aim at this end. We shall fear to dishonor him in the world, the church, and our families. God is jealous of his glory — and so is a godly man. He desires to glorify him in the body, soul, and spirit, which are God's. He does not run at random — but prays, "What will You have me to do?" He does not make excuse for infirmities — but sighs out, "O that my ways were directed to keep your statutes always!" His motto is, "No peace with sin — no truce with Satan — no friendship with the world!" because these would lead him to dishonor God. He would rather suffer pain, than . . .

grieve the Holy Spirit,

dishonor his heavenly Father,

or wound the Savior.

 

And when he sees others careless, loose, and licentious; indulging their lusts and giving way to temptations, he says, "I do not do so, because of the fear of the Lord." He startles at sin with, "How shall I do this great wickedness, and sin against God!"

  

11. Attachment to the WORD OF GOD is a proof that we are of God. Real believers always prize the bible — they love to read it, to think over its contents, and to enjoy its communications. It is as necessary for their souls — as food is for their bodies; they often esteem it more than their necessary food. They would sooner part with all their dainties, than with their bibles. They read it as truth, they believe it as containing the mind of God; and when tempted to think differently, they are grieved and distressed. If the word of God is neglected, they condemn themselves, mourn over their folly before God, and crave his forgiveness. They stay themselves upon the word of God — when assaulted by Satan. They look to it for direction — when bewildered in their path. It is to them as Goliath's sword was to David, for they all say, "There is none like it."

 

They love the Word because it . . .

sets forth Jesus,

reveals the mind of God,

marks out the path of duty,

affords rich consolations,

and contains a mine of wealth.

 

They live . . .

believing its doctrines,

trusting its promises,

walking by its precepts, and

deriving encouragement and caution from its histories.

 

"O how I love your law, it is my meditation all the day. Except your law bad been my delight, my soul had almost dwelt in silence."

   

12. DISSATISFACTION with everything worldly on account of the imperfections discovered, is another evidence of real spirituality. Nothing under Heaven can satisfy the Christian. Having gone the round, he turns away with disgust and exclaims, "Whom have I in Heaven but you, and there is none upon earth that I desire beside you!" He can find full satisfaction only . . .

in the presence of God,

in the enjoyment of his Savior,

and in the duties of Christianity.

 

Everything besides appears empty, polluted, and vain. He may be occasionally attracted, and for a season led away from his resting place; but feeling dissatisfied, uneasy, and grieved, he says, "Return unto your rest, O my soul. There's nothing here deserves my joys — there's nothing like my God!"

 

If nothing can satisfy us but God, he will never put us off with less than himself. The wisdom, justice, the grace discovered in such a state of soul, is from himself; and he will never forsake the work of his own hands. We may learn from, and profit by, his works — but we can only rest in, and be satisfied with

 

himself. "The Lord is our inheritance. He is our portion forever!"

  

13. A spirit of PRAYER is from the Lord, and is a proof of our saving interest in his love. "Behold he prays!" If desire for prayer is produced, and the throne of grace is frequented — we are the blessed of the Lord. Prayer is the Christian's breath — he prays as naturally and as habitually as he breathes. And we would as soon think of a man living without respiration — as of a Christian living without prayer.

 

But do not mistake, prayer is not a form of words — but a sense of need, and a petition for supply. The believer often prays without speaking — while many speak in a form without praying. He goes to Jehovah as naturally as a child to his Father, and as frequently as he feels his wants. He lives in constant fellowship with Heaven. Sometimes he can only sigh or groan — and at other times he can plead with liberty and power. Sometimes he can only look towards the throne of grace — and at others he can wrestle with God and prevail.

 

His heart inspires his petitions,

the Word of God regulates his desires,

to Jesus he looks as his Intercessor before the throne, and

he continues in prayer notwithstanding discouragements.

 

He often feels . . .

his heart hard,

his thoughts perplexed,

his mind bewildered, and

his spirit lukewarm.

 

He is tempted to believe that it is no use for such a one, in such a frame to attempt to pray; but he must confess his faults, tell out his fears, and entreat for mercy in a Savior's name. And though often persuaded that he does not pray, that his attempts cannot be accepted, and that he has neither the gift nor the spirit of prayer — yet he still attempts to find access, and to breathe his sorrows there.

 

Mere formalists are generally satisfied with their prayers, and too often rest in them. But the real Christian sees his to be so impure, imperfect, and worthless — that he dares not trust in anything but Jesus, his righteousness, and blood.

 

Can you live without prayer? Can your discouragements make you give over attempting? Are you satisfied with your prayers? Or do you see that they, even the best of them, need to be washed in the precious blood of Jesus? If so, you have light, life, and spirituality; and surely you are one of those whom Jesus loves. Private prayer, from a sense of need, continued under all discouragements, is an evidence that we are the children of God.

  

14. The CONFLICT between the flesh and the Spirit, is an evidence of grace. If we have a daily exposition of the seventh chapter of the Romans within us — then we are as Paul was. This most Christians have in a greater or less degree: they would do good — but evil is present with them. They would serve the law of God — but are led captive by the law of sin. They hate what they often do — and love what they cannot attain to. They would be holy — but they sin; yet they never excuse sin in themselves, or endeavor to quote scripture to cloak it.

 

The flesh and the spirit carry on a constant warfare, so that the believer often feels wretched and longs for deliverance. He cannot do the things that he would. Sin will fight when it cannot reign. The warfare will only cease with death.

 

We daily discover how the flesh misleads us, and we find it spoils all we attempt for God's glory. It creeps into our motives, or turns us aside from our rule, or puffs us up at the end. Thus we feel . . .

the daily need the open fountain,

the renewings of the Holy Spirit, and

a fresh pardon from the hands of Jesus.

 

The flesh would make us truly miserable — but the riches, plenitude, and permanence of grace prevents it. The love of Jesus is the same — he witnesses the conflict, sympathizes with the sufferer, and cheers him with the assurance, "My grace is sufficient for you!"

 

The spirit desires only to be devoted to, ruled by, and employed for the Lord; and longs for the happy deliverance promised in God's word. Therefore, the flesh and spirit will strive against each other until the day of death!

  

15. Separation from the WORLD, from a discovery of its vanity and enmity to God — is an evidence of grace. The world will love its own — but saints are not of the world, even as Jesus was not of the world. They see that it is opposed to God in its spirit, maxims, and works; and that all the cry is "No God for me!" They cannot join with the ungodly world — they become strangers and pilgrims, and desire to leave it. They . . .

pity its state,

condemn its spirit,

protest against its practices,

and yet seek its good.

 

They witness for God in it, and to it. They sigh and cry because of its abominations, and long for the period when the earth shall be delivered from the bondage of corruption, and there shall be no more curse!

 

A worldly spirit indulged and enjoyed, is the evidence of a worldly man. But deadness to the world, sympathy with Jesus who was persecuted and crucified in the world, and living above the world in fellowship and communion with God — is the evidence of a spiritual man. The world knows not, loves not the Christian; and the Christian loves not the world, knowing that if any man is in friendship with the world, that he is an enemy of God — "if any man loves the world — the love of the Father is not in him." The whole world lies in the wicked one, how important then to be delivered from the present evil world; and to have our affections set on things above, where Christ sits at the right hand of God.

 

"Those who are in the flesh, mind and enjoy the things of the flesh; but those who are in the Spirit, mind the things of the spirit."

  

16. The Lord's people are CHASTENED FOR SIN, and cannot go on in transgression without correction. An enlightened conscience armed with God's word will smite them, the ministry of the word will pierce and penetrate their hearts, and they prove it to be an evil and bitter thing to wander from the Lord their God. Providence joins with Scripture in reproving them for their folly, and the Lord follows them with the rod until they fall at his feet, acknowledge their transgression, and crave his forgiveness.

 

Mere professors may be allowed to go on and escape the rod when they sin — but "those whom the Lord loves — he chastens; and scourges EVERY one whom he receives." And the Christian will justify his God in using discipline, though it may be sharp — and will bow and listen to the rod, though it speaks against him.

 

To lay low at the Lord's feet while he smites,

to cleave to him when he frowns,

to plead with him when he speaks against us —

proves that our principles are divine, that we have the Spirit of God, and are heirs of glory!

 

O for much of that meek humility which . . .

closes the mouth from speaking against any of God's ways,

opens the ear to listen to all his communications,

lays the heart at his feet, and

covers the face with holy shame before him, on account of conscious unworthiness!

 

The lofty mountain of a proud heart will be dry, withered, and barren; but the low valley of an humble soul will be watered with the dew of Heaven from above, and bear fruit to Jehovah's praise.

 

"By humility and the fear of the Lord, are riches, and honor, and life."

 

"Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of God."

 

"Despise not the chastening of the Almighty."

  

17. Looking, waiting, and longing for the SECOND COMING of Jesus, is a scriptural evidence of saintship. Jesus has promised to come again and receive us to himself, he has commanded us to be ready for his glorious appearing, and he has assured us that "to those who look for him, he will come the second time without sin, unto salvation."

 

Love must desire the presence of the beloved object, and must desire his glorification; and he is coming "to be glorified in his saints, and admired in all those who believe." He is now in the Heavens, waiting until his enemies to be made his footstool. The Heavens must retain him, "until the times of the restitution of all things which God has spoken by the mouth of his holy prophets." Faith believes the statements;

hope expects their accomplishment; and

love looks and longs for the time; crying "Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly!"

 

He will certainly come, to the joy of all such — but all his enemies shall be ashamed. There are some things connected with the coming of Jesus, which may make our flesh tremble — but . . .

to see him as he is;

to be like him; to be with him;

to swell his train and his triumphs;

to witness his glories; and

to participate in his blessedness —

is certainly an object of desire to every believer. We wait for him at the Son of God from Heaven, who has preserved us from the wrath to come!

  

18. But after all is said, there is no evidence like HABITUAL FELLOWSHIP WITH GOD. To walk with God as our Father, communicating to him all that we fear, feel, and desire; and receiving from him vigor, comfort, and daily preservation — is an evidence which can never be questioned. We walk by faith, that is,

believing his word,

trusting his grace,

and doing his will.

 

And though darkness and gloom may occasionally surround and even distress us — yet we know that we are of God. It is as natural to us to feed on his word, desire his presence, and seek his love; as it is to the natural child to believe the word, enjoy the presence, and be happy in the love of a kind and tender parent. Our God is love, and believing this, we rely on him, walk with him, and look for his mercy unto eternal life.

 

Beloved reader, endeavor to realize the truth and importance of scripture; to live and act as in the immediate presence of God; and to refresh the mind daily by a view of the perfect work of Jesus, on the ground of which God justifies the ungodly, and walks with poor sinners in peace and love. Stand out from the world — be separate; live by faith, believing God's gracious testimony; lay humbly before the Lord, under a sense of unworthiness; and endeavor to realize daily, your union to Christ, and relation to God as a Father through him. So shall peace be with you, and love with faith from our Lord Jesus Christ, who is our only hope.

 

But a caution may be necessary; these pages may be read by a self-assured professor, one who has light in the head — but no grace in the heart; who substitutes notions — for divine operations; and a sound creed — for a converted soul.

 

My fellow sinner, unless your heart is broken for sin, and broken from sin; unless your religion leads you to Jesus as a poor, wretched, hell-deserving sinner; and unless you are united to him, and his life is manifest in you — your religion is but like the dream of a night vision! It may he pleasing — but it will prove a fearful delusion. Nothing but heart work in religion will stand! Mere head knowledge will vanish away, every false covering will one day be stripped off, and unless you are clothed in the righteousness of Jesus, and internally sanctified by the Holy Spirit — a dreadful sentence will be passed on you, never to be repealed. O fearful case, to be dreaming of happiness — and to find misery — misery as deep and lasting as the desert of sin, and the existence of God!

 

Is it a poor thoughtless sinner that is reading these pages? I have a message from God unto you. "Except you are born again, and converted to God — you cannot see the kingdom of Heaven." If you have not the Spirit of Christ — then you are none of his. If you love not the Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity and truth — then you will be accursed when the Lord comes! Unless you are found in Christ — your death will be melancholy, and your eternal destiny indescribably dreadful!

 

There is mercy to be obtained NOW — this is emphatically "the day of salvation!" But the day will soon close — and a tremendous night of darkness, anger, and woe will set in upon you. A neglected bible, a slighted gospel, a rejected Savior — will all witness against you! And through eternity, you will condemn your present course and curse your folly.

 

Satan is seeking your destruction, your own hearts are deceiving you, and perhaps the conduct of some professors may cause you to stumble; but remember, "Every man must give an account of HIMSELF to God; and receive according to the deeds done in the body, whether they be good or evil."

 

Look well to the foundation on which you build your hope; dig deep and lay that foundation on a rock — even on Christ Jesus. And then you may be happy in time — for you are safe for eternity. "Whoever believes on him shall not be ashamed." He will appear to their joy, and their enemies shall be confounded. Hear then the warning voice, act upon the directions given you in the gospel, make sure work for eternity, and all shall be well.

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

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Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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Best Christian Song | How Great Is the Love | "The Incarnate God Silently Works to Save Man"

 

Best Christian Song | How Great Is the Love | "The Incarnate God Silently Works to Save Man"

 

God became flesh, stayed hidden among man

 

to do the new work, save us from corruption.

 

He reserves explanation.

 

By the plans that He has made, He does His work step by step.

 

His words are increasing day by day,

 

consoling, reminding, reproving, and warning.

 

From gentle and kind to fierce and majestic,

 

His words are instilling compassion and fear.

 

All that He says reveals our deepest secrets.

 

His words can pierce us and we feel ashamed.

 

There’s endless supply of His living water.

 

And thanks to Him, we live with God face to face.

 

God became flesh, stayed hidden among man

 

to do the new work, save us from corruption.

 

He reserves explanation.

 

By the plans that He has made, He does His work step by step.

 

His words have the power of life,

 

and show the way to walk, let us know what the truth is.

 

Drawn by His word, we heed the tone

 

and the heart’s voice of this person unremarkable.

 

He makes every effort and sheds His heart’s blood.

 

It is for us He sighs and weeps in pain,

 

endures the shame for our fate and salvation.

 

His heart bleeds and cries for our rebelliousness.

 

None can attain such being and possessions.

 

No one can match His tolerance.

 

No creation could ever have the love and patience He has.

 

God became flesh, stayed hidden among man

 

to do the new work, save us from corruption.

 

He reserves explanation.

 

By the plans that He has made, He does His work, He does His work.

 

Yes, He does His work step by step.

 

from The Word Appears in the Flesh

 

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Friedrich II. ließ die Bürgerhäuser, zu denen auch eine Kaserne gehörte, hinter der einem englischen Vorbild nachempfundenen einheitlichen Fassade 1769 errichten.

 

Frederick II had the town houses, which also included a barracks, built in 1769 behind a uniform façade modelled on an English one.

Die Garnisonkirche (ehemals: Hof- und Garnisonkirche) war eine evangelische Kirche in der historischen Mitte von Potsdam, deren Turm von 2017 bis 2024 wiederaufgebaut wurde. Erbaut im Auftrag des preußischen Königs Friedrich Wilhelm I. nach Plänen des Architekten Philipp Gerlach in den Jahren 1730–1735, galt sie als ein Hauptwerk des norddeutschen Barocks. Mit einer Turmhöhe von fast 90 Metern war sie das höchste Bauwerk Potsdams und prägte im Dreikirchenblick zusammen mit der Nikolaikirche und der Heiliggeistkirche das Stadtbild. Gegen Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde sie 1945 durch einen britischen Luftangriff in der sogenannten Nacht von Potsdam schwer beschädigt und brannte aus. Die Regierung der DDR ließ die gesicherte Ruine 1968 sprengen, um auf einem Teil des Grundstücks das Rechenzentrum Potsdam zu errichten.

Anhänger eines Wiederaufbaus des Gotteshauses traten 2004 mit dem Ruf aus Potsdam an die Öffentlichkeit. In der Folge ihres Engagements wird seit 2017 die kontrovers debattierte Rekonstruktion als offene Stadtkirche und internationales Versöhnungszentrum betrieben. Am Ostermontag 2024 wurde im wiedererrichteten Kirchturm die neue Nagelkreuzkapelle eröffnet. Im August 2024 wurde eine Ausstellung zur Geschichte des Ortes und die Aussichtsplattform in 57 Meter Höhe eröffnet. Noch fehlt dem Turm die Haube, deren Bau aber noch 2025 neben dem Turm begonnen werden und die dann bis 2027 auf den Turm gehoben werden soll. Das Kirchenschiff wird vermutlich, anders als ursprünglich geplant, nicht wieder errichtet, stattdessen wird über ein Veranstaltungszentrum oder auch einen Saal für die Stadtverordnetenversammlung diskutiert. Der Kirchturm ist bereits jetzt der höchste Aussichtspunkt Posdam, die Aussichtsterrasse ist barrierefrei zu erreichen.

Der Wiederaufbau des Turms war stark umstritten, und ist es immer noch, vor allem wegen des sogenannten "Tags von Potsdam" 1933. Bei den Reichstagswahlen vom 5. März 1933, die in einem Klima von Rechtsunsicherheit und Gewalt stattfanden, erhofften sich die Nationalsozialisten die absolute Mehrheit der Stimmen. Damit sollte die Selbstauflösung des Parlaments durchgesetzt werden, um endgültig den Weg in die Diktatur beschreiten zu können. In der Folge des Reichstagsbrandes in der Nacht vom 27. auf den 28. Februar beschloss das Reichskabinett auf Vorschlag Hitlers, die Reichstagseröffnung nach Potsdam zu verlegen. Unter Bezug auf die erste Reichstagseröffnung 1871 durch Kaiser Wilhelm I. im Weißen Saal des Berliner Schlosses wurde der 21. März als Termin festgesetzt. Höhepunkt der Feierlichkeiten war ein Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche mit Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg, Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler, den Mitgliedern seiner Regierung und den Reichstagsabgeordneten mit Ausnahme der Abgeordneten der SPD und der KPD sowie geladenen Gäste aus dem öffentlichen Leben, der Wirtschaft und der Reichswehr. Damit ähnelte die Zusammenkunft dem Empfang der neuen Reichstagsabgeordneten beim Kaiser, wie es vor 1918 der Brauch gewesen war. Der stark von militärischen Traditionen geprägten Staatsakt in Potsdam mit Reden Hindenburgs und Hitlers und einer großen Militärparade wurde reichsweit im Radio live übertragen und von NS-Propagandaminister Joseph Goebbels als Tag von Potsdam inszeniert. Der Handschlag Hitlers und Hindenburgs vor der Garnisonkirche wurde fotografisch festgehalten und später von der NS-Propaganda zum symbolischen Händedruck stilisiert. Die Nazis, die ihre Macht noch nicht gefestigt sahen, sahen im Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche die Chance, eine Annäherung zwischen Hitler und Hindenburg zu inszenieren und die 1932 im Reichspräsidenten-Wahlkampf noch heftige Spaltung des Mitte-Rechts-Lagers, als überwunden darzustellen. Dieses geschichtliche Ereignis und die Interpretation der Kirche als Symbol des preußischen Militarismus waren vermutlich Hauptgrund für den Abriss der wiederaufbaufähigen Ruine im Jahr 1968 durch die DDR-Behörden gewesen.

  

Dieser Text beruht im Wesentlichen auf Wikipedia

 

The Garrison Church (formerly: Court and Garrison Church) was a Protestant church in the historic centre of Potsdam, whose tower was rebuilt from 2017 to 2024. Built by order of the Prussian King Frederick William I according to plans by the architect Philipp Gerlach between 1730 and 1735, it was considered a major work of North German Baroque architecture. With a tower height of almost 90 metres, it was the tallest building in Potsdam and, together with St. Nicholas' and Holy Spirit Churches, dominated the cityscape in what was known as the 'Three-Churches-View' Towards the end of the Second World War, it was badly damaged by a British air raid in 1945 during the so-called Night of Potsdam and burnt out. The GDR government had the secured ruins blown up in 1968 in order to build the Potsdam Computer Centre on part of the site.

Supporters of rebuilding the church went public with the “'Call from Potsdam”' in 2004. As a result of their commitment, the controversially debated reconstruction as an open city church and international reconciliation centre has been underway since 2017. On Easter Monday 2024, the new Chapel of the Cross of Nails was opened in the rebuilt church tower. In August 2024, an exhibition on the history of the site and the viewing platform at a height of 57 metres were opened. The tower is still missing its spire, but construction will begin next to the tower in 2025 and the spire is due to be raised by 2027. The nave of the church will probably not be rebuilt as originally planned, instead there are discussions about an event centre or a hall for the town council meeting. The church tower is already the highest vantage point in Posdam, and the viewing terrace can be reached barrier-free.

The reconstruction of the tower was, and still is, highly controversial, mainly due to the so-called “Day of Potsdam” in 1933. The Nazis hoped to gain an absolute majority of votes in the Reichstag elections of 5 March 1933, which took place in a climate of legal uncertainty and violence. This was intended to force through the self-dissolution of parliament so that they could finally embark on the path to dictatorship. Following the Reichstag fire on the night of 27/28 February, the Reich Cabinet decided, at Hitler's suggestion, to move the opening of the Reichstag to Potsdam. With reference to the first Reichstag opening in 1871 by Emperor Wilhelm I in the White Hall of the Berlin Palace, 21 March was set as the date. The highlight of the celebrations was a state ceremony in the Garrison Church with Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler, the members of his government and the Reichstag deputies, with the exception of the SPD and KPD deputies, as well as invited guests from public life, business and the armed forces. The gathering thus resembled the reception of the new Reichstag deputies by the Kaiser, as had been the custom before 1918. The state ceremony in Potsdam, which was strongly characterised by military traditions, with speeches by Hindenburg and Hitler and a large military parade, was broadcast live on the radio throughout the Reich and staged by Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels as the Day of Potsdam. Hitler and Hindenburg's handshake in front of the Garrison Church was photographed and later stylised by Nazi propaganda as a symbolic handshake. The Nazis, who did not yet see their power consolidated, saw the act of state in the Garrison Church as an opportunity to stage a rapprochement between Hitler and Hindenburg and to present the still fierce division of the centre-right in the 1932 presidential election campaign as having been overcome. This historical event and the interpretation of the church as a symbol of Prussian militarism were probably the main reasons for the demolition of the rebuildable ruins in 1968 by the GDR authorities.

 

This text is mainly based on Wikipedia

   

DALE ABBEY - November 18th 2016.

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Today, the only easily recognisable relict feature of the Dale Abbey ruins is its empty 40-foot-high chancel window, an impressive feature, being forty feet ground to keystone in height and sixteen feet in width.

 

Victorian excavations revealed the Abbey to have possessed transepts of one hundred feet in length, a crossing tower, a cloister eighty-five feet square and a nave of unknown length.

 

It was the camera mounted upon a drone that took the above image of the ancient window arch of the former Dale Abbey, close to dusk and before darkening fields.

Throughout the centuries before the Abbey's destuction by men of King Henry V111, the monks' strict routines had marked the tempo of local life . Each and every day the Abbey bells would have rung out across the surrounding fields and woodland.

 

Further -

Another Lenton Sands flickr picture is a sketch showing the Abbey ruins in 1727, it suggests its structure before King Henry V111 destruction. As a remarkable historic record, the picture deserves some scrutiny. The sketch was first made public in 1880 as a folded page insert in a book concerning the History of Ilkeston by Edwin Truman and others.

 

Dale Abbey was originally known as the " Abbey de Parco Stanli," meaning Stanley Park Abbey ]

 

Cannons were priests and deacons who lived like monks - whilst following the ways of St. Augustine, who was born in November of the year 354, and died in August of 430 . Augustine had sought to establish a church wherein its members would live their days in close Christ-like service, being reliant upon the mercy of God, and by the charity and offerings of the faithfuI . They being without regular salaries, that which they got was distributed proportionately among themselves according to their needs. A strict rule determined the men would dine and sup together. No woman was allowed to enter their house.

 

A monastery, or abbey, was a complex of buildings and facilities necessary for the needs of its inhabitants monastic life of prayer and devout submission to God and the Word of Christ. The wealthiest establishments possessed facilities that the poorer ones could not have afforded or have had a need of .Many were built on the fertile low lying land near water . As fish was an important food, fishponds were dug and established wherever possible. .

 

Abbeys were, and remain, the abode of communities of monks or nuns. They originated among the early Christian hermits of the Egyptian desert as a cluster of separate huts built around that of an anchorite of distinguished piety. The name signifies the institution as well as the building.

 

As the monastic system became organized, there arose a form of architecture suited to its needs. The principle adopted by the Benedictines, that an abbey should be entirely self-contained, led to great complexity in the many thousands of buildings erected by that order throughout Europe. Building features included the church, the centre of the whole monastic life; the chapter-house ; the pisalis, or calefactory, the common room of the monks; the refectory, or dining-room ; dormitories ; cloisters ; buildings devoted to the reception of guests; the almonry, where the needs of the poor were relieved; infirmary and physician’s residence ; library and writing-room ; schools for novices and children; besides bake-house, brewery, workshops, stables, and farm buildings.

The gardens were filled with vegetables, fruits, and medicinal herbs; and the whole abbey was surrounded by a wall. Such British abbeys are, for example, "Westminster, Canterbury, York, Tewkesbury (Benedictine), Durham, Fountains, Kirkstall (Cistercian), Bolton, Bristol, and Holyrood (Augustinian). The first English abbey was founded at Bangor in the year 560.

King Henry VIII began his suppression of the kingdom's monastic foundations in 1525, by ordering the closure of the smaller ones. By 1538 he had abolished, or had ordered the surrendering (the closure) of all the institutions, including the most wealthy and powerful ones.

  

In 1162, in the seventh year of the reign of King Henry the Second a body of nine Augustinian Canons were brought to Dale in Derbyshire by the then Lord of the manor there, Geoffrey de Salicosa Mare .

The men were to live in what was then a wet and wild, deep valley hollow known as Depedale.. It lay in the vicinities of the villages West Hallam, Heanor and Ilkeston. They had come from New-house, in Lincolnshire for the the purpose of establishing a community dedicated to monastic life. Theirs was an extreme task, and one that eventually became impossible as sustained life and work in Depedale proved too harsh. Nevertheless, decades later, after other attempt's had also failed there, a community did become established.

Those first monks of Dale had been formerly of the Augustinian order . They were replaced by a number from Calke Abbey, men who later still were themselves replaced (or perhaps supplemented) by Premonstratensian canons came from Tupholme and finally, more from Welbeck. Depedale (Dale) was an isolated hollow. Its abbey was to be built amidst wild thick woodlands, therefor the monks initially lived very hard , and hungry, lives . It was only as their body gained property, rents and tithe monies, was its future made sure.

The Abbey eventually owned some twentyfour thousand acres of land.

  

As the men in Depedale began their task, England was Violent and Lawless and its population falling .

The reign of King Stephen was from December 26th., 1135, until October 25th.,1154.

The years of the reign of Stephen were terrible for many of his subjects in England : a time in which 1115 castles were built . "The period was violent and lawless as the owners and occupiers of the castles which then abounded in England rampaged. One historian summarised the terrible time : " Castles abounded in every part of England; each defending, or rather depopulating, its neighbourhood. The knights of the castle seized the sheep and cattle in the fields, sparing neither churches nor cemeteries. They stripped the cottages even of their straw, and imprisoned their miserable inhabitants. They exhausted the property of their captives by their ransoms; and many perished in the torments that were applied to compel them to redeem themselves. Tortures were inflicted, both to gratify, revenge, and amass wealth."

 

Dale Abbey was costly to build. Though quarry stone could be had, money could not.

The hermit of the cave had been long dead before the benevolence of Lady Matilda of Stanli made the "manor of Stanleye with its parish" to the canons of Dale.

 

It also acquired advowsons of the churches of Heanor, Ilkeston, and Kirk Hallam.

 

The Abbey was built of stately dimensions, having several large windows on each side, and one large chancel window at its east end . Today that window still stands though long ruined and empty.

  

Then," Richard de Sandiacre," (at a later date) gave, for the love of God and salvation of my soul, to the canons of Dale, a piece of land in " my wood of Kirk Hallam," " being six perches in width, together with the quarry in it, extending from the abbot’s ditch to the east of the said quarry, as far as the wood of the Canons of Dale, for quarrying, ditching, and enclosing," as they shall choose. From this time Dale Abbey increased in possessions and riches, under the rule of eighteen successive Abbots, so that at the time of the Dissolution in I539, when it was surrendered by the Abbot and sixteen Canons, its yearly value was estimated at £144 4s, a sum equal to nearly *£3000 in these day.

 

The original Depedale church, a stone construction that was later developed and expanded to be Dale Abbey, was built by Austin Cannons . Considerable further building (from about the year 1200) created a fine structure of stately dimensions that possessed "Early English," "Early English Transition," and '"Decorated" styles of architecture, plus some later additions made at the latter end of the fifteenth century.

 

First in a series of events which turned the poverty of Depedale to prosperity was the wedding of Margery, the daughter of the man that had been touched by the hermit’s rags and skins, and Serlo de Grendon, - a soldier ardent in warfare, owner of many a manor, and a member of an important wealthy family. With his wife he received half the manor of Okebroke. . Then was Serlo’s gift of part of his wife’s dowry to " a friend who was also his spiritual mother in that she had promised for him at the sacred font long years before." To her Serlo gave "the place of Depedale, and all the land between the path which leads from Boyhawe toward the west to the Colkeysike and Brunesbroc ;" and there she lived in a mansion " where there is now a pond, at the bottom of which our fathers found many cut stones which formerly belonged to the said mansion." This "venerable matron" persuaded her godson to give Depedale to the monastery of Kalke, because " God, who orders everything, willed to exalt Depedale yet more gloriously."

The canons of Kalke sent five of their number to live in their new possession. Their names were Humfrey, who was their leader; Nicholas and Simon, who had both been fellow—students at Paris with Serlo’s son William; "and two others whose names have escaped my memory." These were joined by the godmother’s son, Richard, who had been instructed in sacred letters and ordained priest in order that he might say mass in his mother’s chapel of Depedale, " Having taken root in the said place, the aforesaid canons, strengthened by God, built for themselves a church at great expense, and also other buildings." Moreover, Humphrie, their prior, went to Rome and obtained very valuable privileges " .

 

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In Queen Victoria's Kinder Times - as the Railways began to be built across the land - Long after the years of Dale Abbey, a traveller of Queen Victoria's time recalled Depedale and the countryside about as he then saw it : -

 

"Depedale, better known as Dale Abbey, has no connection with the limestone region more commonly associated with Derbyshire, but may be taken as a type of the (Robin Hood) scenery frequent in the outer margin of the country; and, indeed, in several parts of the Midland district. It lies in the neighbourhood of the Nottingham border, some eight miles to the east of Derby, among the low hills that drain into the valley of the Erewash. Beyond Derby, the road mounts rapidly from the level meadows by the river Derwent till an upland plateau is gained, over which it runs through richly-wooded scenery, at times seeming almost a continuous park. It commands lovely views over the valley of the Derwent and across a shelving, gently—undulating region toward the south, where mile after mile of rolling fields and woodlands stretches away till at last the lines of the Charnwood Forest hills rise blue in the distance.

 

At length, as the view begins to widen toward the east, we reach the edge of a declivity, and Depedale lies spread out before us. It is a silent, world—forgotten spot—a little village, with crooked lanes, and houses scattered about hap-hazard and almost smothered in orchards. Its history may be briefly told, as it is gathered from the chronicle of one of the Canons of the Abbey, Thomas de Musca, who lived in the fifteenth century; it also forms the subject of a ballad by the Howitts. About the beginning of the thirteenth century, there lived in Derby one Cornelius, a baker,. who, like his namesake of Caesarea, served the Lord zealously in prayer and almsgiving. Falling asleep on a certain day, the Virgin Mary appeared to him in a vision, and bade him, if he would be perfect, leave all his worldly goods and betake himself to Depedale, there to serve her and her Son in solitude and prayer. Thither he wandered, guided by an accidental direction, which he received as a sign from heaven, and, in a little cave scooped out from the rock, worshiped God in fasting and prayers night and day. The Lord of Ockebrook, on his return from Normandy, came upon the recluse while he was out hunting; and, being moved by compassion at his miserable state, granted the spot to him, and gave him tithe of the mill of Burgh for his support. After discovering a spring in the lower part of the valley, and so securing a supply of water, from the want of which he at first had suffered much, he built there an oratory; and, after many sufferings, d

 

Every day the Canons of Dale walked in procession around their churchyard. Their lives were guided by formal written rules contained within a book that had been given a striking frontispiece , a representation of two winged boys carrying a skull of startling appearance, having six conspicuous front teeth, three in each jaw. . . .

  

Thankfully, it eventually happened that, " the Lady Matilda de Salicosa—Mara," in spite of her womanhood, was allowed to enter the sacred precints of Dale, because the noble matron, being old and full of days, and knowing that the time of her summons from this world ( ie her death ) was swiftly drawing near, desired to persuade God to give her a happy exit from this vale of tears by means of " the prayers of such holy men" as the canons. Lady Matilda, and her husband, they being nine years married, had no children and wanting some, made the "manor of Stanleye with its parish" to the canons of Dale, in order that " God, the most High, the rewarder of good deeds, considering the pious devotion of our humility, may grant to us the delight of being blessed with the children we long for," and also that He, " in return for this our gift, may grant to us the happiness of eternal life."

 

The Hymn, Salve Regina . . .

Hail, holy Queen, Mother of Mercy,

hail our life, our sweetness and our hope.

To thee do we cry, poor banished children of Eve;

to thee do we send up our sighs,

mourning and weeping in this valley of tears.

Turn then, most gracious advocate,

thine eyes of mercy toward us;

and after this our exile,

show unto us the blessed fruit of thy womb, Jesus.

  

By that,the 1899 "History of Ilkeston" plainly observes, reasonably, that the Canons of Dale, " a community of celibates, owed its foundation to a childless couple who were desiring a son to inherit their name ." It further comments that the first object of their gifting having failed, it was natural that the lady should 'appeal to the canons to do their best to procure the fulfilment of the second '.

 

The Baker of Derby became the First Hermit of Dale - then described as Depedale .

As a folk tale and song : the story of the baker of Derby passed down the years .

Truman's History invites a reader to Imagine a scene within a small cottage at evening, where a mother and her family are gathered together . Quote: " And now, as she tarries with them a while, they gather round their aged " mother" " on a certain holy day," and she tells them a tale, the story of how, like St. Norbert of old to his valley of Premontré, a certain baker of Derby first came to the valley of Dale, in the endeavour to make himself perfect, and so to earn "the kingdom of love and joy and eternal bliss which God has prepared for those who love him." The baker had for many years distributed to the poor in alms every Saturday, " for the love of God and the Holy Virgin," all the profits of his baking for the week, except what he needed for food and clothing for himself and his family. Such charity was rewarded. "It happened that on a certain day in autumn, when he had given himself up to the midday sleep, the blessed Virgin Mary appeared to him in a dream, saying, ‘Thy alms are accepted before my son and me, but now if thou wilt be perfect, leave all that thou hast and go to Depedale, and there thou shalt serve my son and me’ " by living all by yourself; and " when thou shalt have finished thy llife on earth, thou shalt inherit" the above mentioned kingdom. So, leaving the poor of Derby to wait in vain for the doles by which he had kept them from starvation, the baker straightway went forth without saying goodbye to his friends and relations, and walked to Stanley, without the ghost of an idea of whereabouts Depedale might be.

In the middle of the village he overheard a woman telling a girl to drive her calves to Depedale, and, "believing that this word had been spoken to him in grace," he followed her and them to " a marshy , place of fearful aspect" far distant from even any hut. There he scooped out a cave in the rocky side of the mountain, " a very small dwelling," which every Ilkestonian has visited, as every inhabitant of Knaresborough has visited the similar hermit’s cave near that town. For there were hermits enough and to spare; but the baker of Derby was one of a superior class. The generality, at least at a later date, were "lewed eremytes that look full humble to gain men’s alms in hope to sit at even by the hot coles, and after drinking deep, to draw themselves to bed, lyving in ydelnesse and in ese." But the fact that the taverns were crowded with dirty hypocrites was a proof that the standard hermit was by no means a despicable creature, however untidy in his habits, else the country folk would not have paid people for pretending to be like him when they were not. Genuine hermits used to spend most of their time in fighting evil spirits, who, thinking not unnaturally that they must have a great deal of spare time on their hands, used to worry them nearly out of their senses. They frequently came to them armed with four claws on each hand, one-third the length of their arms, and five on each foot—eighteen in all, and wearing nothing but a pair of bathing drawers and two long ears. But, formidable though they were, they were not invincible. St. Norbert, when pending a night in prayer about this time, was thus visited when he was in the act of holding his jaw up with his hand because he was so dreadfully tired.* He heard his visitor crying scornfully, " Yah l yah l what

eat work do you think you are ever likely to do when you can’t hold out for a single night ?" " You are liar from the beginning," replied the saint; " who do you think is going to believe you now ?" " At this the evil spirit fled away in confusion." So it was with our Derby ex-baker. As "he served God, day and night, in hunger and thirst, in cold and in meditation," trying to become perfect by eating less than was good for him, " the cunning old enemy of the painted windows in the cloister of Dale Abbey told the story of how St. Robert, the hermit of Knaresborough, and son of the or of York, slew the deer which would not let him repeat his psalms in peace—most hermits made a point of repeating the entire Psalter

day—and how the keepers complained to the king, and how the king told St. Robert he might have as much land for himself as he could plough with a yoke of deer, and how nicely the deer did the ploughing, just as if they had been doing nothing else all their lives."

  

Cannons were priests and deacons who lived like monks. It was St. Augustine who first thought of them. " He made of his episcopal palace a community of clerks who served his church. Those who had anything were obliged to distribute it to the poor, or to get rid of

somehow or other. They waited for the mercy of God by the charity of the Church and by the offerings of the faithfuI," instead of stipulating for regular salaries, and what they received was distributed among them according to their needs. According to strict rule the men would dine and sup together. No woman was allowed to enter the house.

 

Today the only clearly visible Abbey ruin feature is its 40-foot-high chancel window - it being sixteen feet wide, and forty feet from the ground to its keystone .

Victorian excavations revealed the church to have possessed transepts of one hundred feet in length, a crossing tower, a cloister eightyfive feet square and a nave of unknown length. Some of the remains of the building can be found in houses around the village.

The last Abbot of Dale Abbey, John Bede, died in 1540.

 

When, after its dissolution, Sir Francis Pole of Radbourne took possession of Dale Abbey its furnishings and fittings were sold or stripped out. Some were installed in nearby churches. Morley Church became home to some of the stained and painted glass, floor tiles and an entire porchway. The ornately carved font cover was installed in Radbourne Church while Chaddesden received a window frame. In 1884 the Abbey font eventually was returned to Dale , being placed in All Saints Church . The slabs upon which the canons walked for so many centuries can be found in the grounds of the church at the Moravian Settlement at Ockbrook

.

At the time of its forced yet none-violent surrender, Dale Abbey was thought to be of stately dimensions, it having several large windows on each side, and one large chancel window at the east end . It had been founded in the year 1204.

Its surrender to the crown's agent was forced in 1538 by which time its revenues were estimated at £144 4s. per annum.

 

A historian named Willis writes Dale Abbey was surrendered by its last abbot, John Staunton, together with sixteen monks. However according to the commissioners’ accounts of that date it was a person named John Bede was the last abbot. The commissioners awarded the abbot John Bede a pension of £26 13s. 4d., and the monks various smaller pensions. The commissioners counted the total number of monks to be eighteen .

On its last day the Abbey's period of government (authority) had been exactly three hundred and twelve years , six weeks and one day .

Thereafter as the years passed the former Abbey land was subject to many changes of ownership . Upon its surrender to the Crown a certain Francis Pole, Esq., took possession of the site and demesnes, as lessee [ almost certainly for the Crown ] and purchased the altar, crucifix, organ, gravestones and and all the live and dead stock. In the year 1538, the abbey clock was sold for six shillings ; the iron, glass, paving and grave stones, for a total of eighteen pounds. The former Abbey's six great bells , which weighed 47 cwt. , were also disposed of - but for what price or by what arrangement is not known,

In 1554, he ( Francis Pole ) was granted (ie given) the abbey as his fee, that is as a payment to him for his services as lessee .It then being his property , In that same year he conveyed it ( sold it ) to Sir John Port , one of the Justices of the King’s Bench.

Thereafter , Dorothy, one of Sir John's co-heiresses, was left it by his will and by the law of that time brought it to her husband, Sir George Hastings.

Sir Henry Willoughby, of Risley, then purchased the estate of the representative of Sir George Hastings, who was afterwards Earl of Huntingdon, and died in 1605.

Sir Henry Willoughby having left three daughters, co-heiresses, one of whom left no issue, the manor of Dale and the abbey demesnes were held in moieties by the noble family of Grey, and that of A Dewes , into which the other co-heiresses married. One moiety.of the estate was purchased in 1716, by the trustees of Philip the then Earl of Chesterfield, of Sir Simon Dewes, for his BOD Alexander, father of the first Earl of Stanhope.

[ Thereby it came to be that Lord Stanhope was the land's owner at the time of the Abbey site excavation which was commenced, under the auspices of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society in 1878.]

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THE HERMITAGE OF DALE was a cave, cut in sandstone rock just a short distance from the old Abbey. It was made a basic, yet comfortable enough dwelling, it having a large in the rock, possessing,.originally, a rude doorway a Dale was endowed by the lord or lady of a manor. in return for prayers for their family.

 

Traditionally, hermitages have been located in caves and huts, often in the desert or woods, sometimes abutting monastery buildings of a cenobitic community when there was an exchange of labour and provisions

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The September 1878 [ partial ] Excavations at Dale Abbey .

 

In September, 1878, an excavation of the foundations of Dale Abbey was begun and continued into August, 1879 when it was ended "having met with unexpected success". The Abbey ground plan was thought largely complete though not concerning its south and west sides .The work had commenced, under the auspices of the Derbyshire Archaeological and Natural History Society. Though some trial holes were permitted to be dug at the south side none were permitted at the west owing to the unwillingness of the tenant there.

 

It appeared that there were six altars to the church, viz., the High Altar, and those dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, our Lady of Pity, the Holy Rood, S. Margaret, and S.Werburgh. Of these the High Altar and two others remained; the position of two others was indicated. The whole church appeared to be of early English date. One of the most valuable discoveries was a large portion of the nave pavement with the tiles disposed for the arrangement of processions. A remarkable effigy was also found, but opinions dilfer as to whom it represents, whether a canon, a cantor, a lector, abbot, or prior.

Some distance beneath this efligy was found an oaken coffin, and beneath the body which was in this coffin were a large number of leaves still green and pliant, although a lapse of 500 years must have ensued since they were plucked from the tree.

 

Beneath two incised slabs, interments were also found. A west doorway ol great richness was unearthed, and also a rnemorial stone of an abbot. It bore a richly sculptured cross, by the side of which was cut a pastoral staff, as significatory of the rank of the old Premonstratensian prelate.

 

The lower courses of a fine staircase at the junction of the choir and north transept that lead up to the central tower were exposed with numerous especially good encaustic tiles of heraldic and set patterns. Also discovered were fragments of painted glass and beautifully carved crochets of Early English work.

Of the original Church, built by the Austin Cannons, there are hardly any remains, beyond some fragments of incised slabs, and perhaps, two or three bases of piers. The existing buildings appear to have been commenced about the year 1200, and there are examples of the "Early English," "Early English Transition," and '"Decorated" styles, with some later additions of the latter end of the fifteenth century.

 

[ Doctor Stukeley's plan shows an aisleless cruciform church, with two contiguous chapels on the south side of the choir- the cloister to the south, bounded by the transept and a large

oblong chamber on the east ; the parlour, refectory, and kitchen on the south, and sundry offices, with the Prior`s lodging, on the west.

The excavations, however, have proved that the doctor's survey is inaccurate.]

  

______________________________

 

After the 1878 - 1879 archaeological excavations upon the Abbey's site , Earl Stanhope, its owner, stated that he intended to preserve it and to erect a building to serve as a museum.

 

_______________________________

 

Manuscript : read the following ancient text which is in old style English with care . . .

 

One of the most interesting records extant, relating to the "Abbey de Parco Stanli" or Dale Abbey," is the one contained in the valuable MS. volume, numbered 172, in the Augmentation Office Records. This account contains the inventories of eleven religious houses, taken in 1538, under the direction of Dr. (afterwards Sir) Thomas Legh and William

Cavendish, the King’s Commissioners for the dissolution, and among these are three or four Derbyshire and Staffordshire houses.

From a copy of one of these—the Inventory of Dale Abbey-—we make the following extracts " : Dale Priory ( Abbey ) , Derbyshire . Hereafter folowyth all such parcells of implements or householde stuife, corne, catell, ornaments of the churche and such

other lyke founde within the late monastery ther at the time of the dissolucon of the same house, soulde by the Kinges Commissioners to Fraunces Pole, esquire, the xxiiij day of October in the xxxth yere of our soveraigne lorde Kyng Henry the viijth..

The Churche : At the hygh aulter a table of woode paynted, ij candlestykes of brasse, a lampe, the seates in the quier, acrucyfyx, Mary and John, a payre of organs, xxs, on the

ryght hand of the quier ij aulters wyth ij tables of allebastervjs. : a grate of yron abowte the Founder [a railing or screenof wood or metal round the tomb of the founder] and tym-

ber worke ther viijs. ; the rode alter in the church and a rodether ijs. ; in our Lady Chapell a table of alebaster and certen setes and woode ther vs.: in the lytell Chapell of our

Lady a table of alebaster wyth an imaj of our Lady ther iijs. ;the particion of tymber in the body of the Churche xxd. ;the clock ther vjs. ; the roffes, ieron, glasse, pavying stones,

and grave stones, and pavying stones in the church xviijli.The Dorter : there ys soulde for vijs vjd.The Vestry : ij tynacles of blacke satten a cope of the same with albes thereto belonging ; a sewte of whyte sylke with a cope to the same spotted with blue sterres; a sewte of blake sylke viij oulde copes viij oulde altar clothes as soulde for xls.

The Cloyster; The roffes, ieron, glass, pavyng stones and the seats there soulde for vi li.

The Kechyn: A brasse pott in a furnes; iij brasse potts; iij lytell pannes; iij spyttes ; a payr of coberds ; j pott chayen ; ij cressetts; j grydyren; a payr of tongs; a morter with a pestell ; xl platers, dysshes and saucers, sould for xls.The Brewhonse ; ij leads ; a masshyng fatte ; a malte arke . The Bysshops Chamber: An oulde fether bede; an oulde coveryng; a boulster; an oulde tester; an oulde henging -— xijs.Catell at the Monastery : viij oxen soulde for iiijli. ; xv. yonge bullokes, at iiijs. the peoe, lxs. ; xx pygges soulde fore xiijs iiijd. ; ealvys soulde for xxs; horses there soulde for xxs — ixli. xiijs iiijd.

[Then follow the remainder of the ‘ oatell and also the grayne ~soulde’ at Bayhaye Graunge and Ockbroke Graungaj Wayenes at the Monastery : ij waynes soulde for vjs viijd, ij

oulde waynes soulde for vjs viijd.

Hereafter folowyth all such parcells of implements or house holde stuffe, corne, catell, ornaments of the churche and such other lyke founde within the late monastery ther at the time of the dissolucon of the same house, soulde by the Kinges Commissioners to Fraunces Pole, esquire, the xxiiij day of October in the xxxth yere of our soveraigne lorde Kyng Henry the viijth.The Churche : At the hygh aulter a table of woode paynted, ij

candlestykes of brasse, a lampe, the seates in the quier, a crucyfyx, Mary and John, a payre of organs, xxs, on the ryght hand of the quier ij aulters wyth ij tables of allebaster

vjs. : a grate of yron abowte the Founder [a railing or screenof wood or metal round the tomb of the founder] and tymber worke ther viijs. ; the rode alter in the church and a rode

ther ijs. ; in our Lady Chapell a table of alebaster and certen setes and woode ther vs.: in the lytell Chapell of our Lady a table of alebaster wyth an imaj of our Lady ther iijs. ;

the particion of tymber in the body of the Churche xxd. ; the clock ther vjs. ; the roffes, ieron, glasse, pavying stones,and grave stones, and pavying stones in the church xviijli.

The Dorter : there ys soulde for vijs vjd. The Vestry: ij tynacles of blacke satten a cope of the same with albes thereto belonging ; a sewte of whyte sylke with a

cope to the same spotted with blue sterres; a sewte of blake sylke viij oulde copes viij oulde altar clothes as soulde for xls.ety was purchased, 1778, of the Earl of Stamford.

 

[A list of ‘ rewards gyven to the abbott and covent ther at ther departure’ is next given, and is followed by a number of payments in sums varying from 5s. to 20s.—— in all, £15 9s. Sd., V including Sir William Cooke, the parish pryst of Stanley, in `' reward 20s. ; John Tebaulde and his wyffe xijs., and John of the Henhouse, viijs.]

 

Pencizms and Stypends appoynted and allotted to the late Abbott and Convent of the seid late Monastery by the foreseid Commissioners to

John Bede, late Abbott . . . .xxvj1i. xiijs. iiijd.

Richard Wheteley, prior . . . . . . cvjs. viijd.

John Cadman . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cvjs. viijd.

Richard Hawslon . . . . . . . . . . . cvjs. viijd.

Thomas Bagshaw . . . . . . . . . . .cvjs. viijjd.

 

William Smyth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cvjs. viijjd. John Banks . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . .cs.

John Shemold . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxvjs. viijjd.

George Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . .. es. ff

Robert Hervey . . . . . .. . . . . . . cxvis. viijd. Y

Rauffe Heryson . . . . . . . . . .. . cs. QQ

Robert Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . ..lxvjs. viijjd.

Jamis Cheryholme . . . . . .

The partial archeological excavations of the site of Dale Abbey - 1878 - 1879 .

 

After the 1878 - 1879 archaeological excavations upon the Abbey's site , Earl Stanhope, its owner, stated that he intended to preserve it and to erect a building to serve as a museum.

_____________________________________

 

An 1875 photo at the Hermit's Cave. The man's name was Wood.

 

www.flickr.com/photos/lenton_sands/30971982551/in/datepos...

  

www.holyspiritspeaks.org/videos/passage-god-has-made-anew...

Introduction

Almighty God says, "Do you wish to know the root of why the Pharisees opposed Jesus? Do you wish to know the substance of the Pharisees? They were full of fantasies about the Messiah. What’s more, they believed only that the Messiah would come, yet did not seek the truth of life. And so, even today they still await the Messiah, for they have no knowledge of the way of life, and do not know what the way of truth is. How, say you, could such foolish, stubborn and ignorant people gain God’s blessing? How could they behold the Messiah? They opposed Jesus because they did not know the direction of the Holy Spirit’s work, because they did not know the way of truth spoken by Jesus, and, furthermore, because they did not understand the Messiah. And since they had never seen the Messiah, and had never been in the company of the Messiah, they made the mistake of paying empty tribute to the name of the Messiah while opposing the substance of the Messiah by any means. These Pharisees in substance were stubborn, arrogant, and did not obey the truth. The principle of their belief in God is: No matter how profound Your preaching, no matter how high Your authority, You are not Christ unless You are called the Messiah. Are these views not preposterous and ridiculous? I ask you again: Is it not extremely easy for you to commit the mistakes of the earliest Pharisees, given that you have not the slightest understanding of Jesus? Are you able to discern the way of truth? Can you truly guarantee that you will not oppose Christ? Are you able to follow the work of the Holy Spirit? If you do not know whether you will oppose Christ, then I say that you are already living on the brink of death. Those who did not know the Messiah were all capable of opposing Jesus, of rejecting Jesus, of slandering Him. People who do not understand Jesus are all capable of denying Him, and reviling Him.

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Heidelberg - Heidelberger Schloss

 

Heidelberg Castle (German: Heidelberger Schloss) is a ruin in Germany and landmark of Heidelberg. The castle ruins are among the most important Renaissance structures north of the Alps.

 

The castle has only been partially rebuilt since its demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is located 80 metres (260 ft) up the northern part of the Königstuhl hillside, and thereby dominates the view of the old downtown. It is served by an intermediate station on the Heidelberger Bergbahn funicular railway that runs from Heidelberg's Kornmarkt to the summit of the Königstuhl.

 

The earliest castle structure was built before 1214 and later expanded into two castles circa 1294; however, in 1537, a lightning bolt destroyed the upper castle. The present structures had been expanded by 1650, before damage by later wars and fires. In 1764, another lightning bolt caused a fire which destroyed some rebuilt sections.

 

Before destruction

 

Early history

 

Heidelberg was first mentioned in 1196 as "Heidelberch". In 1155 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was made the Count Palatine by his half-brother Frederick Barbarossa, and the region became known as the Electoral Palatinate. The claim that Conrad's main residence was on the Schlossberg (Castle Hill), known as the Jettenbühl, cannot be substantiated. The name "Jettenbühl" comes from the soothsayer Jetta, who was said to have lived there. She is also associated with Wolfsbrunnen (Wolf's Spring) and the Heidenloch (Heathens' Well). The first mention of a castle in Heidelberg (Latin: "castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri") is in 1214, when Louis I, Duke of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach received it from Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II. The last mention of a single castle is in 1294. In another document from 1303, two castles are mentioned for the first time:

 

The upper castle on Kleiner Gaisberg Mountain, near today's Hotel Molkenkur (destroyed in 1537);

The lower castle on the Jettenbühl (the present castle site).

 

All that is known about the founding of the lower castle is that it took place sometime between 1294 and 1303. The oldest documented references to Heidelberg Castle are found during the 1600s:

 

The Thesaurus Pictuarum of the Palatinate church counsel Markus zum Lamb (1559 to 1606);

The "Annales Academici Heidelbergenses" by the Heidelberg librarian and professor Pithopoeus (started in 1587);

The "Originum Palatinarum Commentarius" by Marquard Freher (1599);

The "Teutsche Reyssebuch" by Martin Zeiller (Strasbourg 1632, reprinted in 1674 as the "Itinerarium Germaniae").

 

All of these works are for the most part superficial and do not contain much information. In 1615, Merian's Topographia Palatinatus Rheni described Prince Elector Ludwig V as he "started building a new castle one hundred and more years ago". Most of the descriptions of the castle up until the 18th century are based on Merian's information. Under Ruprecht I, the court chapel was erected on the Jettenbühl.

 

Palace of kings

 

When Ruprecht became the King of Germany in 1401, the castle was so small that on his return from his coronation, he had to camp out in the Augustinians' monastery, on the site of today's University Square. What he desired was more space for his entourage and court and to impress his guests, but also additional defences to turn the castle into a fortress.

 

After Ruprecht's death in 1410, his land was divided between his four sons. The Palatinate, the heart of his territories, was given to the eldest son, Ludwig III. Ludwig was the representative of the emperor and the supreme judge, and it was in this capacity that he, after the Council of Constance in 1415 and at the behest of Emperor Sigismund, held the deposed Antipope John XXIII in custody before he was taken to Burg Eichelsheim (today Mannheim-Lindenhof).

 

On a visit to Heidelberg in 1838, the French author Victor Hugo took particular pleasure in strolling among the ruins of the castle. He summarised its history in this letter:

 

But let me talk of its castle. (This is absolutely essential, and I should actually have begun with it.) What times it has been through! Five hundred years long it has been victim to everything that has shaken Europe, and now it has collapsed under its weight. That is because this Heidelberg Castle, the residence of the counts Palatine, who were answerable only to kings, emperors, and popes, and was of too much significance to bend to their whims, but couldn't raise his head without coming into conflict with them, and that is because, in my opinion, that the Heidelberg Castle has always taken up some position of opposition towards the powerful. Circa 1300, the time of its founding, it starts with a Thebes analogy; in Count Rudolf and Emperor Ludwig, these degenerate brothers, it has its Eteocles and its Polynices [warring sons of Oedipus]. Then the prince elector begins to grow in power. In 1400 the Palatine Ruprecht II, supported by three Rhenish prince electors, deposes Emperor Wenceslaus and usurps his position; 120 years later in 1519, Count Palatine Frederick II was to create the young King Charles I of Spain Emperor Charles V.

 

Reformation and the Thirty Years Wars

 

It was during the reign of Louis V, Elector Palatine (1508–1544) that Martin Luther came to Heidelberg to defend one of his theses (Heidelberg Disputation) and paid a visit to the castle. He was shown around by Louis's younger brother, Wolfgang, Count Palatine, and in a letter to his friend George Spalatin praises the castle's beauty and its defenses.

 

In 1619, Protestants rebelling against the Holy Roman Empire offered the crown of Bohemia to Frederick V, Elector Palatine who accepted despite misgivings and in doing so triggered the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. It was during the Thirty Years War that arms were raised against the castle for the first time. This period marks the end of the castle's construction; the centuries to follow brought with them destruction and rebuilding.

 

Destruction

 

After his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620, Frederick V was on the run as an outlaw and had to release his troops prematurely, leaving the Palatinate undefended against General Tilly, the supreme commander of the Imperial and Holy Roman Empire's troops. On 26 August 1622, Tilly commenced his attack on Heidelberg, taking the town on 16 September, and the castle a few days later.

 

When the Swedes captured Heidelberg on 5 May 1633 and opened fire on the castle from the Königstuhl hill behind it, Tilly handed over the castle. The following year, the emperor's troops tried to recapture the castle, but it was not until July 1635 that they succeeded. It remained in their possession until the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years War was signed. The new ruler, Charles Louis (Karl Ludwig) and his family did not move into the ruined castle until 7 October 1649.

 

Victor Hugo summarized these and the following events:

 

In 1619, Frederick V, then a young man, took the crown of the kings of Bohemia, against the will of the emperor, and in 1687, Philip William, Count Palatine, by then an old man, assumes the title of prince-elector, against the will of the king of France. This was to cause Heidelberg battles and never-ending tribuluations, the Thirty Years War, Gustav Adolfs Ruhmesblatt and finally the War of the Grand Alliance, the Turennes mission. All of these terrible events have blighted the castle. Three emperors, Louis the Bavarian, Adolf of Nassau, and Leopold of Austria, have laid siege to it; Pio II condemned it; Louis XIV wreaked havoc on it.

— quoted from Victor Hugo: "Heidelberg"

 

Nine Years' War

 

After the death of Charles II, Elector Palatine, the last in line of the House of Palatinate-Simmern, Louis XIV of France demanded the surrender of the allodial title in favor of the Duchess of Orléans, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine who he claimed was the rightful heir to the Simmern lands. On 29 September 1688, the French troops marched into the Palatinate of the Rhine and on 24 October moved into Heidelberg, which had been deserted by Philipp Wilhelm, the new Elector Palatine from the line of Palatinate-Neuburg. At war against the allied European powers, France's war council decided to destroy all fortifications and to lay waste to the Palatinate (Brûlez le Palatinat!), in order to prevent an enemy attack from this area. As the French withdrew from the castle on 2 March 1689, they set fire to it and blew the front off the Fat Tower. Portions of the town were also burned, but the mercy of a French general, René de Froulay de Tessé, who told the townspeople to set small fires in their homes to create smoke and the illusion of widespread burning, prevented wider destruction.

 

Immediately upon his accession in 1690, Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine had the walls and towers rebuilt. When the French again reached the gates of Heidelberg in 1691 and 1692, the town's defenses were so good that they did not gain entry. On 18 May 1693 the French were yet again at the town's gates and took it on 22 May. However, they did not attain control of the castle and destroyed the town in attempt to weaken the castle's main support base. The castle's occupants capitulated the next day. Now the French took the opportunity to finish off the work started in 1689, after their hurried exit from the town. The towers and walls that had survived the last wave of destruction, were blown up with mines.

 

Removal of the court to Mannheim

 

In 1697 the Treaty of Ryswick was signed, marking the end of the War of the Grand Alliance and finally bringing peace to the town. Plans were made to pull down the castle and to reuse parts of it for a new palace in the valley. When difficulties with this plan became apparent, the castle was patched up. At the same time, Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine played with the idea of completely redesigning the castle, but shelved the project due to lack of funds. He did, however, install his favorite court jester, Perkeo of Heidelberg to famously watch over the castle's wine stock. Perkeo later became the unofficial mascot of the city. In 1720, he came into conflict with the town's Protestants as a result of fully handing over the Church of the Holy Spirit to the Catholics (it had previously been split by a partition and used by both congregations), the Catholic prince-elector moved his court to Mannheim and lost all interest in the castle. When on 12 April 1720, Charles announced the removal of the court and all its administrative bodies to Mannheim, he wished that "Grass may grow on her streets".

 

The religious conflict was probably only one reason for the move to Mannheim. In addition, converting the old-fashioned hill-top castle into a Baroque palace would have been difficult and costly. By moving down into the plain, the prince-elector was able to construct a new palace, Mannheim Palace, that met his every wish.

 

Karl Phillip's successor Karl Theodor planned to move his court back to Heidelberg Castle. However, on 24 June 1764, lightning struck the Saalbau (court building) twice in a row, again setting the castle on fire, which he regarded as a sign from heaven and changed his plans. Victor Hugo, who had come to love the ruins of the castle, also saw it as a divine signal:

 

One could even say that the very heavens had intervened. On 23 June 1764, the day before Karl Theodor was to move into the castle and make it his seat (which, by the bye, would have been a great disaster, for if Karl Theodor had spent his thirty years there, these austere ruins which we today so admire would certainly have been decorated in the pompadour style); on this day, then, with the prince's furnishings already arrived and waiting in the Church of the Holy Spirit, fire from heaven hit the octagonal tower, set light to the roof, and destroyed this five-hundred-year-old castle in very few hours.

— Victor Hugo, Heidelberg

 

In the following decades, basic repairs were made, but Heidelberg Castle remained essentially a ruin.

 

Since destruction

 

Slow decay and Romantic enthusiasm

 

In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria in addition to the Palatinate and removed his court from Mannheim to Munich. Heidelberg Castle receded even further from his thoughts and the rooms which had still had roofs were taken over by craftsmen. Even as early as 1767, the south wall was quarried for stone to build Schwetzingen Castle. In 1784, the vaults in the Ottoheinrich wing were filled in, and the castle used as a source of building materials.

 

As a result of the German mediatisation of 1803, Heidelberg and Mannheim became part of Baden. Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden welcomed the addition to his territory, although he regarded Heidelberg Castle as an unwanted addition. The structure was decaying and the townsfolk were helping themselves to stone, wood, and iron from the castle to build their own houses. The statuary and ornaments were also fair game. August von Kotzebue expressed his indignation in 1803 at the government of Baden's intention to pull down the ruins. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ruined castle had become a symbol for the patriotic movement against Napoleon.

 

Even before 1800, artists had come to see the river, the hills and the ruins of the castle as an ideal ensemble. The best depictions are those of England's J. M. W. Turner, who stayed in Heidelberg several times between 1817 and 1844, and painted Heidelberg and the castle many times. He and his fellow Romantic painters were not interested in faithful portrayals of the building and gave artistic licence free rein. For example, Turner's paintings of the castle show it perched far higher up on the hill than it actually is.

 

The saviour of the castle was the French count Charles de Graimberg. He fought the government of Baden, which viewed the castle as an "old ruin with a multitude of tasteless, crumbling ornaments", for the preservation of the building. Until 1822, he served as a voluntary castle warden, and lived for a while in the Glass Wing (Gläserner Saalbau), where he could keep an eye on the courtyard. Long before the origin of historic preservation in Germany, he was the first person to take an interest in the conservation and documentation of the castle, which may never have occurred to any of the Romantics. Graimberg asked Thomas A. Leger to prepare the first castle guide. With his pictures of the castle, of which many copies were produced, Graimberg promoted the castle ruins and drew many tourists to the town.

 

Planning and restoration

 

The question of whether the castle should be completely restored was discussed for a long time. In 1868, the poet Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter argued for a complete reconstruction, leading to a strong backlash in public meetings and in the press.

 

In 1883, the Grand Duchy of Baden established a "Castle field office", supervised by building director Josef Durm in Karlsruhe, district building supervisor Julius Koch and architect Fritz Seitz. The office made a detailed plan for preserving or repairing the main building. They completed their work in 1890, which led a commission of specialists from across Germany to decide that while a complete or partial rebuilding of the castle was not possible, it was possible to preserve it in its current condition. Only the Friedrich Building, whose interiors were fire damaged, but not ruined, would be restored. This reconstruction was done from 1897 to 1900 by Karl Schäfer at the enormous cost of 520,000 Marks.

 

Castle ruins and tourism

 

The oldest description of Heidelberg from 1465 mentions that the city is "frequented by strangers", but it did not really become a tourist attraction until the beginning of the 19th century. Count Graimberg made the castle a pervasive subject for pictures which became forerunners of the postcard. At the same time, the castle was also found on souvenir cups. Tourism received a big boost when Heidelberg was connected to the railway network in 1840.

 

Mark Twain, the American author, described the Heidelberg Castle in his 1880 travel book A Tramp Abroad:

 

A ruin must be rightly situated, to be effective. This one could not have been better placed. It stands upon a commanding elevation, it is buried in green woods, there is no level ground about it, but, on the contrary, there are wooded terraces upon terraces, and one looks down through shining leaves into profound chasms and abysses where twilight reigns and the sun cannot intrude. Nature knows how to garnish a ruin to get the best effect. One of these old towers is split down the middle, and one half has tumbled aside. It tumbled in such a way as to establish itself in a picturesque attitude. Then all it lacked was a fitting drapery, and Nature has furnished that; she has robed the rugged mass in flowers and verdure, and made it a charm to the eye. The standing half exposes its arched and cavernous rooms to you, like open, toothless mouths; there, too, the vines and flowers have done their work of grace. The rear portion of the tower has not been neglected, either, but is clothed with a clinging garment of polished ivy which hides the wounds and stains of time. Even the top is not left bare, but is crowned with a flourishing group of trees & shrubs. Misfortune has done for this old tower what it has done for the human character sometimes – improved it.

— Mark Twain

 

In the 20th century, Americans spread Heidelberg's reputation outside Europe. Thus, Japanese also often visit the Heidelberg Castle during their trips to Europe. Heidelberg has, at the beginning of the 21st century, more than three million visitors a year and about 1,000,000 overnight stays. Most of the foreign visitors come either from the USA or Japan. The most important attraction, according to surveys by the Geographical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, is the castle with its observation terraces.

 

Chronology

 

Timeline of events for Heidelberg Castle:

 

1225: first documented mention as "Castrum".

1303: mention of two castles.

1537: destruction of the upper castle by lightning bolt.

1610: creation of the palace garden ("Hortus Palatinus").

1622: Tilly conquers city and castle in the Thirty Years War.

1642: renewal of the Castle plants.

1688/1689: destruction by French troops.

1693: renewed destruction in the Palatinate succession war.

1697: (start) reconstruction.

1720: transfer of the residence to Mannheim.

1742: (start) reconstruction.

1764: destruction by lightning bolt.

1810: Charles de Graimberg dedicates himself to the preservation of the Castle ruins.

1860: first Castle lighting.

1883: establishment of the "office of building of castles of Baden."

1890: stocktaking by Julius Koch and Fritz Seitz.

1900: (circa) restorations and historical development.

 

(Wikipedi)

 

Das Heidelberger Schloss ist eine der berühmtesten Ruinen Deutschlands und das Wahrzeichen der Stadt Heidelberg. Bis zu seiner Zerstörung im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg war es die Residenz der Kurfürsten von der Pfalz. Seit den Zerstörungen durch die Soldaten Ludwigs XIV. 1689 und der Sprengung durch französische Pioniere am 6. September 1693 wurde das Heidelberger Schloss nur teilweise restauriert. Nachdem am 24. Juni 1764 Blitze die teilweise renovierte Anlage in Brand gesetzt hatten, wurde die Wiederherstellung aufgegeben. Die Schlossruine aus rotem Neckartäler Sandstein erhebt sich 80 Meter über dem Talgrund am Nordhang des Königstuhls und dominiert von dort das Bild der Altstadt. Der Ottheinrichsbau, einer der Palastbauten des Schlosses, zählt zu den bedeutendsten Bauwerken des deutschen Manierismus. In der kulturgeschichtlichen Epoche der Romantik wurde die Schlossruine zu einem Inbegriff einer vergangenen und bewundernswerten Epoche stilisiert. Es zählt heute zu den meistbesuchten touristischen Sehenswürdigkeiten Europas.

 

Geschichte

 

Bis zu den Zerstörungen

 

Erste Erwähnungen

 

Um das Jahr 1182 verlegte Konrad der Staufer, Halbbruder von Kaiser Friedrich I. Barbarossa und seit 1156 Pfalzgraf bei Rhein, seine Hofhaltung von der Burg Stahleck bei Bacharach am Mittelrhein auf die Burg Heidelberg, seinem Sitz als Vogt des Klosters Schönau im Odenwald.

 

Die Stadt Heidelberg wird im Jahr 1196 zum ersten Mal in einer Urkunde genannt. Eine Burg in Heidelberg („castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri“) wird im Jahr 1225 erwähnt, als Ludwig der Kelheimer diese Burg vom Bischof Heinrich von Worms als Lehen erhielt. 1214 waren die Herzöge von Bayern aus dem Haus Wittelsbach mit der Pfalzgrafschaft belehnt worden.

 

Von einer Burg ist zuletzt im Jahr 1294 die Rede. In einer Urkunde des Jahres 1303 werden zum ersten Mal zwei Burgen aufgeführt: die obere Burg auf dem Kleinen Gaisberg bei der jetzigen Molkenkur und die untere Burg auf dem Jettenbühl. Lange Zeit hatte sich deshalb in der Forschung die Auffassung durchgesetzt, dass die Gründung der unteren Burg zwischen 1294 und 1303 entstanden sein müsse, zumal die vom Schlossbaubüro in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts akribisch durchgeführte Bauaufnahme zum Schluss gelangte, dass die Bausubstanz keine Datierung des Schlosses vor das 15. Jahrhundert gerechtfertigt habe. Aufgrund von Architekturfunden und neueren bauarchäologischen Untersuchungen wird in der jüngeren Forschung zum Heidelberger Schloss die Entstehung der unteren Burg dagegen mittlerweile auf die erste Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts datiert. Bereits 1897 wurde ein vermauertes spätromanisches Fenster in der Trennwand zwischen Gläsernem Saalbau und Friedrichsbau entdeckt. 1976 förderten Ausschachtungsarbeiten an der Nordostecke des Ruprechtbaues in einer um 1400 abgelagerten Schutt- und Abbruchschicht ein Fensterfragment in Form eines Kleeblattbogens zutage, wie es sich in ähnlicher Form in den Arkadenfenstern der Burg Wildenberg findet. Eine im Jahr 1999 im Bereich des Ludwigsbaus durchgeführte archäologische Untersuchung verdichtete die Hinweise auf eine Bebauung des Schlossareals in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts.

 

Die ältesten Werke, die das Heidelberger Schloss erwähnen, sind:

 

der Thesaurus Picturarum des pfälzischen Kirchenrats Markus zum Lamb (1559 bis 1606)

die Annales Academici Heidelbergenses des Heidelberger Bibliothekars und Professors Pithopoeus (1587 begonnen)

der Originum Palatinarum Commentarius von Marquard Freher (1599)

das Teutsche Reyssebuch von Martin Zeiller (Straßburg 1632, als Itinerarium Germaniae 1674 wieder abgedruckt)

 

Alle diese Werke sind meist oberflächlich und enthalten nichts Ernsthaftes. Anders verhält es sich mit Matthäus Merian Topographia Palatinatus Rheni aus dem Jahr 1615, in der Kurfürst Ludwig V. als derjenige genannt wird, der „vor hundert und etlichen Jahren hat ein neu Schloß angefangen zu bauen“. Auf Merians Angaben stützen sich die meisten Beschreibungen des Schlosses bis ins 18. Jahrhundert hinein. Das Bestreben, die Gründungszeit des Schlosses weiter rückwärts zu verlegen, führt später zu Hinweisen, dass bereits unter Ruprecht I. die berühmte Hofkapelle auf dem Jettenbühl errichtet worden sei.

Königsschloss und Papstgefängnis

 

Als Ruprecht III. im Jahr 1401 Deutscher König (Ruprecht I.) wurde, herrschte im Schloss so großer Raummangel, dass er bei seiner Rückkehr von der Königskrönung sein Hoflager im Augustinerkloster (heute: Universitätsplatz) aufschlagen musste. Jetzt galt es, Raum zur Repräsentation und zur Unterbringung des Beamten- und Hofstaates zu schaffen. Gleichzeitig musste die Burg zu einer Festung ausgebaut werden. Etwa aus der Zeit Ruprechts III. stammen die ältesten heute sichtbaren Teile des Schlosses.

 

Nach Ruprechts Tod im Jahr 1410 wurde der Herrschaftsbereich unter seinen vier Söhnen aufgeteilt. Die pfälzischen Stammlande gingen an den ältesten Sohn Ludwig III. Nach dem Konzil von Konstanz brachte dieser als Stellvertreter des Kaisers und oberster Richter im Jahr 1415 im Auftrag König Sigismunds den abgesetzten Papst Johannes XXIII. auf dem Schloss in Gewahrsam, bevor er auf Burg Eichelsheim (heute Mannheim-Lindenhof) gebracht wurde.

 

Der französische Dichter Victor Hugo besuchte 1838 Heidelberg und spazierte dabei besonders gerne in den Ruinen des Schlosses herum, dessen Geschichte er in einem Brief zusammenfasst:

 

„Lassen Sie mich nur von seinem Schloß sprechen. (Das ist absolut unerläßlich, und eigentlich hätte ich damit beginnen sollen). Was hat es nicht alles durchgemacht! Fünfhundert Jahre lang hat es die Rückwirkungen von allem hinnehmen müssen, was Europa erschüttert hat, und am Ende ist es darunter zusammengebrochen. Das liegt daran, daß dieses Heidelberger Schloß, die Residenz des Pfalzgrafen, der über sich nur Könige, Kaiser und Päpste hatte und zu bedeutend war, um sich unter deren Füßen zu krümmen, aber nicht den Kopf heben konnte, ohne mit ihnen aneinanderzugeraten, das liegt daran, meine ich, daß das Heidelberger Schloß immer irgendeine Oppositionshaltung gegenüber den Mächtigen eingenommen hat. Schon um 1300, der Zeit seiner Gründung, beginnt es mit einer Thebais; in dem Grafen Rudolf und dem Kaiser Ludwig, diesen beiden entarteten Brüdern, hat es seinen Eteokles und seinen Polyneikes. Darin nimmt der Kurfürst an Macht zu. Im Jahre 1400 setzt der Pfälzer Ruprecht II., unterstützt von drei rheinischen Kurfürsten, Kaiser Wenzeslaus ab und nimmt dessen Stelle ein; hundertzwanzig Jahre später, 1519, sollte Pfalzgraf Friedrich II. den jungen König Karl I. von Spanien zu Kaiser Karl V. machen.“

 

– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg

 

Badisch-Pfälzischer Krieg

 

Im Badisch-Pfälzischen Krieg 1462 setzte Kurfürst Friedrich I. von der Pfalz (der „Pfälzer Fritz“) den Markgrafen Karl I. von Baden, den Bischof Georg von Metz und den Grafen Ulrich V. von Württemberg auf dem Schloss fest. Friedrich ließ die Gefangenen bei harter Kost in Ketten legen, bis sie bereit waren, die geforderten Lösegeldzahlungen zu leisten. Markgraf Karl I. musste zur Freilassung 25.000 Gulden zahlen, seinen Anteil an der Grafschaft Sponheim als Pfand abgeben und Pforzheim zum pfälzischen Lehen erklären. Der Metzer Bischof musste 45.000 Gulden zahlen. Das Wichtigste war aber, dass Friedrich I. von der Pfalz seinen Anspruch als Kurfürst gesichert hatte. Die Sage berichtet, Friedrich habe seinen unfreiwilligen Gästen das Fehlen von Brot bei der Mahlzeit dadurch begreiflich gemacht, dass er sie durch das Fenster auf das verwüstete Land hinab blicken ließ. Dies wird in einem Gedicht von Gustav Schwab mit dem Titel „Das Mahl zu Heidelberg“ nacherzählt.

 

Reformation und Dreißigjähriger Krieg

 

Während der Regierung Ludwigs V. besichtigte Martin Luther, der zu einer Verteidigung seiner Thesen (Heidelberger Disputation) nach Heidelberg gekommen war, das Schloss. Er wurde dabei von Pfalzgraf Wolfgang, dem Bruder Ludwigs V., herumgeführt und lobte später in einem Brief an seinen Freund Georg Spalatin vom 18. Mai 1518 die Schönheit und kriegerische Ausrüstung des Schlosses.

 

Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg flogen zum ersten Mal Kugeln gegen das Heidelberger Schloss. Hiermit endet auch die eigentliche Geschichte des Schlossbaus. Die folgenden Jahrhunderte bringen hauptsächlich Zerstörungen und Wiederherstellungen.

 

Friedrich V. von der Pfalz nahm – trotz vieler Bedenken – die Königswürde von Böhmen an und löste damit eine Katastrophe aus. Nach der Schlacht am Weißen Berg war er als Geächteter auf der Flucht und hatte voreilig seine Truppen entlassen, so dass General Tilly, der Oberbefehlshaber der katholischen Liga-Truppen im Dienst des Kurfürsten von Bayern, eine unverteidigte Pfalz vor sich hatte. Am 26. August 1622 eröffnete er die Beschießung Heidelbergs und nahm am 16. September die Stadt und wenige Tage darauf das Schloss ein. Nachdem die Schweden am 5. Mai 1633 die Stadt Heidelberg eingenommen und vom Königstuhl aus das Feuer auf das Schloss eröffnet hatten, übergab der kaiserliche Kommandant am 26. Mai 1633 die Festung an die Schweden. Nach der schweren Niederlage der Schweden in der Schlacht bei Nördlingen im September 1634 besetzten Truppen des Kaisers erneut die Stadt. In der Absicht, das Schloss zu sprengen, wurden innerhalb von 14 Tagen 24 Tonnen Pulver in Stollen unter den Mauern des Schlosses deponiert. Das überraschende Erscheinen einer französischen Armee mit 30.000 Mann verhinderte die geplante Sprengung. Erst im Juli 1635 kam die Stadt erneut in die Gewalt der kaiserlichen Truppen, in der es dann bis zum Friedensschluss blieb. Erst am 7. Oktober 1649 zog der neue Herrscher wieder in das zerstörte Stammschloss seiner Familie ein.

 

Im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg

 

Der französische König Ludwig XIV. verlangte nach dem Tode des kinderlosen Kurfürsten Karl II., des letzten Fürsten der Linie Pfalz-Simmern, im Namen der Herzogin von Orléans die Herausgabe des pfälzischen Allodialgutes. Am 29. September 1688 rückten die französischen Heere im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg in die Pfalz und zogen am 24. Oktober in das von Philipp Wilhelm, dem neuen Kurfürsten aus der Linie Pfalz-Neuburg, verlassene Heidelberg ein.

 

Gegen die verbündeten europäischen Mächte beschloss der französische Kriegsrat, durch Zerstörung aller Festungswerke und durch Verwüstung des pfälzischen Landes dem Feinde die Möglichkeit des Angriffes von dieser Gegend her zu entziehen. Beim Ausrücken aus der Stadt am 2. März 1689 steckten die Franzosen das Schloss und auch die Stadt an vielen Ecken zugleich in Brand.

 

Johann Wilhelm ließ sofort nach seinem Einzug in die verwüstete Stadt die Mauern und Türme wiederherstellen. Als die Franzosen 1691 und 1692 erneut bis vor die Tore Heidelbergs gelangten, fanden sie die Stadt in einem so guten Verteidigungszustand vor, dass sie unverrichteter Dinge abziehen mussten. Am 18. Mai 1693 standen die Franzosen allerdings wieder vor der Stadt und nahmen sie am 22. Mai ein. Sie versuchten vermutlich, mit der Zerstörung der Stadt die Hauptoperationsbasis gegen das Schloss zu schaffen. Am folgenden Tage kapitulierte die Schlossbesatzung, und nun holten die Franzosen nach, was sie 1689 in der Eile ihres Abzugs nur unvollständig ausgeführt hatten: Sie sprengten nun durch Minen die Türme und Mauern, die beim letzten Mal der Zerstörung entgangen waren. Das Heidelberger Schloss wurde eine Ruine.

 

Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim

 

Der Frieden von Rijswijk, mit dem der Pfälzische Erbfolgekrieg beendet wurde, brachte im Jahr 1697 endlich etwas Ruhe. Es war geplant, das Schloss abzureißen und die brauchbaren Teile zur Errichtung eines neuen Palastes im Tal zu verwenden. Als sich aber der Durchführung dieses Planes Schwierigkeiten entgegenstellten, wurde das Schloss notdürftig wiederhergestellt. Gleichzeitig trug sich Karl Philipp mit dem Gedanken eines vollständigen Umbaues des Schlosses, aber der Mangel an finanziellen Mitteln schob dieses Projekt auf, und als der Kurfürst 1720 mit den Protestanten der Stadt wegen Überlassung der Heiliggeistkirche an die Katholiken in Streit geriet, der die Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim zur Folge hatte, endete das Interesse des Kurfürsten am Heidelberger Schloss. Seine Absicht war es, die Heiliggeistkirche zur katholischen Hofkirche umzuwidmen, was die Heidelberger Reformierten mit allen Mitteln zu verhindern suchten. Als er am 12. April 1720 die Verlegung seiner Residenz mit allen Behörden nach Mannheim verkündete, überließ der Kurfürst die alte Hauptstadt ihrem Schicksal und wünschte ihr, dass „Gras auf ihren Straßen wachsen“ solle. Der religiöse Konflikt war vermutlich aber nur der letzte Anstoß gewesen, das alte, schwer zu einer barocken Anlage umzubauende Bergschloss aufzugeben und in die Ebene zu ziehen, wo er eine ganz seinem Willen entspringende Neugründung vornehmen konnte.

 

Sein Nachfolger Karl Theodor plante vorübergehend, seinen Wohnsitz wieder ins Heidelberger Schloss zu verlegen. Er nahm davon allerdings wieder Abstand, als am 24. Juni 1764 der Blitz zweimal hintereinander in den Saalbau einschlug und das Schloss abermals brannte. Victor Hugo hielt dies später für einen Wink des Himmels:

 

„Man könnte sogar sagen, daß der Himmel sich eingemischt hat. Am 23. Juni 1764, einen Tag, bevor Karl-Theodor in das Schloß einziehen und es zu seiner Residenz machen sollte (was, nebenbei gesagt, ein großes Unglück gewesen wäre; denn wenn Karl-Theodor seine dreißig Jahre dort verbracht hätte, wäre die strenge Ruine, die wir heute bewundern, sicher mit einer schrecklichen Pompadour-Verzierung versehen worden), an diesem Vortag also, als die Möbel des Fürsten bereits vor der Tür, in der Heiliggeistkirche, standen, traf das Feuer des Himmels den achteckigen Turm, setzte das Dach in Brand und zerstörte in wenigen Stunden dieses fünfhundert Jahre alte Schloß.“

 

– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg.

 

In den folgenden Jahrzehnten wurden zwar noch notwendige Erneuerungen vorgenommen, aber das Heidelberger Schloss blieb von nun an hauptsächlich eine Ruine.

 

Seit den Zerstörungen

 

Langsamer Zerfall und romantische Begeisterung

 

Im Jahr 1777 verlegte Kurfürst Karl Theodor seine Residenz von Mannheim nach München. Damit verlor er das Heidelberger Schloss noch mehr aus den Augen. Die überdachten Räume wurden nun von Handwerksbetrieben genutzt. Schon 1767 hatte man begonnen, die Quader des Südwalles als Baumaterial für das Schwetzinger Schloss zu verwenden. Im Jahr 1784 wurden gar die Gewölbe im Erdgeschoss des Ottheinrichsbaus eingelegt und das Schloss als Steinbruch verwendet.

 

Durch den Reichsdeputationshauptschluss von 1803 gingen Heidelberg und Mannheim an Baden über. Der große Gebietszuwachs war Großherzog Karl Friedrich willkommen, das Heidelberger Schloss betrachtete er jedoch als unerwünschte Zugabe. Die Bauten verfielen, Heidelberger Bürger holten aus dem Schloss Steine, Holz und Eisen zum Bau ihrer Häuser. Auch Figuren und Verzierungen wurden abgeschlagen. August von Kotzebue äußerte sich 1803 voller Empörung über die Absicht der badischen Regierung, die Ruinen abtragen zu lassen. Das zerstörte Schloss wurde am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts zum Sinnbild für die patriotische Gesinnung, die sich gegen die napoleonische Unterdrückung richtete.

 

Schon vor 1800 erkannten Maler und Zeichner in der Schlossruine und der bergigen Flusslandschaft ein idealtypisches Ensemble. Den Höhepunkt bilden die Gemälde des Engländers William Turner, der sich zwischen 1817 und 1844 mehrfach in Heidelberg aufhielt und etliche Gemälde von Heidelberg und dem Schloss anfertigte. Ihm und anderen Künstlern der Romantik ging es dabei nicht um eine detailgetreue Bauaufnahme. Sie pflegten eher einen recht freien Umgang mit der Wirklichkeit. So ist bei seinem Gemälde des Schlosses das Gelände mehrfach überhöht dargestellt.

 

Der Begriff Romantik wurde von dem Philosophen Friedrich Schlegel Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts zu einer Universalpoesie erklärt – ein literaturtheoretischer Begriff aus der Frühromantik. In ihr würden alle Künste und Gattungen zu einer Form verschmelzen. Jedoch wandelte sich dies im allgemeinen Verständnis zu einem verklärenden sentimentalen Gefühl der Sehnsucht. Diese Empfindung fand insbesondere in der sogenannten Heidelberger Romantik ihren Ausdruck. So zum Beispiel in Liedersammlungen der Autoren Achim von Arnim und Clemens Brentano, die sich oft in Heidelberg aufhielten. Landschaftsmaler machten die Schlossreste zum zentralen Motiv ihrer Gemälde, in denen häufig das Anmutige der umgebenden Landschaft in Kontrast gestellt wurde zum Feierlich-Düsteren der Ruine. Clemens Brentano dichtete:

 

„Und da ich um die Ecke bog, – ein kühles Lüftlein mir entgegen zog – Der Neckar rauscht aus grünen Hallen – Und giebt am Fels ein freudig Schallen, – Die Stadt streckt sich den Fluss hinunter, – Mit viel Geräusch und lärmt ganz munter, – Und drüber an grüner Berge Brust, – Ruht groß das Schloss und sieht die Lust.“

 

– Clemens Brentano: Lied von eines Studenten Ankunft in Heidelberg und seinem Traum auf der Brücke, worin ein schöner Dialogus zwischen Frau Pallas und Karl Theodor.

 

Die auf Poetik beruhenden Konzepte der Romantik wurden in brieflichen Diskussionen zwischen Achim und Jacob Grimm über das Verhältnis von Natur- und Kunstpoesie entwickelt. Abkehrend von den Elementen der Reflexion, Kritik und Rhetorik in der Kunstpoesie, beschäftigt sich die „Heidelberger Romantik“ mit der Naturpoesie. Im Laufe des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde Heidelberg mit seinem Schloss und der heimischen Natur auch bei Reisenden und Wanderern zunehmend bekannt und beliebt. Stadt und Schloss wurden zum Inbegriff romantischer Stimmung.

 

Der Retter des Schlosses war der französische Graf Charles de Graimberg. Er kämpfte gegen Pläne der badischen Regierung, für die das Heidelberger Schloss das „alte Gemäuer mit seinen vielfältigen, geschmacklosen, ruinösen Verzierungen“ war, für die Erhaltung der Schlossruinen. Er versah bis 1822 das Amt eines freiwilligen Schlosswächters und wohnte eine Zeit lang im Vorbau des Gläsernen Saalbaues, von dem aus er den Schlosshof am besten übersehen konnte. Lange bevor es in Deutschland eine Denkmalpflege gab, war er der erste, der sich um den Erhalt und die Dokumentation des Schlosses kümmerte, als bei der romantischen Schwärmerei noch niemand daran dachte, den Verfall zu unterbinden. In Auftrag Graimbergs verfasste Thomas A. Leger den ersten Schlossführer. Mit seinen in hoher Auflage produzierten druckgraphischen Ansichten verhalf Graimberg der Schlossruine zu einem Bekanntheitsgrad, der den Tourismus nach Heidelberg lenkte.

 

Bestandsaufnahme und Restaurierung – der Heidelberger Schlossstreit

 

Die Frage, ob das Schloss vollständig wiederhergestellt werden solle, führte zu langen Diskussionen. Der Dichter Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter machte sich im Jahr 1868 für eine vollständige Erneuerung stark und rief damit heftige Reaktionen hervor, die in der Presse und in Versammlungen ausgetragen wurden. Aus dem Streit um den richtigen Umgang mit der Schlossruine entwickelte sich eine Grundsatzdiskussion über die Aufgaben der Denkmalpflege. Die Ergebnisse dieser Debatte, die als der „Heidelberger Schlossstreit“ in die Geschichte eingegangen sind, prägten die Prinzipien der Bewahrung historischer Bauwerke nachhaltig.

 

Die Großherzogliche badische Regierung errichtete im Jahr 1883 ein Schloßbaubüro, das unter Oberaufsicht des Baudirektors Josef Durm in Karlsruhe vom Bezirksbauinspektor Julius Koch und dem Architekten Fritz Seitz geleitet wurde. Aufgabe des Büros war es, eine möglichst genaue Bestandsaufnahme zu machen und zugleich Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung oder Instandsetzung der Hauptgebäude vorzuschlagen. Die Arbeiten dieses Büros endeten 1890 und bildeten die Grundlage für eine Kommission von Fachleuten aus ganz Deutschland. Die Kommission kam zu der einhelligen Überzeugung, dass eine völlige oder teilweise Wiederherstellung des Schlosses nicht in Betracht komme, dagegen eine Erhaltung des jetzigen Zustandes mit allen Mitteln zu erstreben sei. Nur der Friedrichsbau, dessen Innenräume zwar durch Feuer zerstört worden waren, der aber nie Ruine war, sollte wiederhergestellt werden. Diese Wiederherstellung geschah schließlich in der Zeit von 1897 bis 1900 durch Carl Schäfer mit dem enormen Kostenaufwand von 520.000 Mark. Im Jahr 2019 entspricht der Aufwand Inflationsbereinigt 3.700.000 €.

 

Schlossruine und Tourismus

 

Schon die älteste Beschreibung Heidelbergs aus dem Jahr 1465 erwähnt, dass die Stadt „vielbesucht von Fremden“ sei. Doch ein eigentlicher Städtetourismus setzte frühestens zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts ein. Graf Graimberg sorgte mit seinen Zeichnungen dafür, dass das Schloss als Bildmotiv eine große Verbreitung fand. Sie wurden praktisch zu Vorläufern der Postkarte. Zur gleichen Zeit gab es auch schon das Schloss als Souvenir auf Tassen. Den entscheidenden Schub erhielt der Tourismus aber erst mit dem Anschluss Heidelbergs ans Eisenbahnnetz im Jahr 1840.

 

Mark Twain beschrieb 1878 in seinem Buch Bummel durch Europa (A Tramp Abroad) das Heidelberger Schloss folgendermaßen:

 

„Um gut zu wirken, muss eine Ruine den richtigen Standort haben. Diese hier hätte nicht günstiger gelegen sein können. Sie steht auf einer die Umgebung beherrschenden Höhe, sie ist in grünen Wäldern verborgen, um sie herum gibt es keinen ebenen Grund, sondern im Gegenteil bewaldete Terrassen, man blickt durch glänzende Blätter in tiefe Klüfte und Abgründe hinab, wo Dämmer herrscht und die Sonne nicht eindringen kann. Die Natur versteht es, eine Ruine zu schmücken, um die beste Wirkung zu erzielen.“

 

– Mark Twain: Bummel durch Europa.

 

Bei einem am 18. Mai 1978 verübten Brandanschlag, der den Revolutionären Zellen zugerechnet wird, entstand ein Sachschaden von 97.000 DM am Schloss.

 

Im 20. Jahrhundert verfielen die US-Amerikaner noch mehr dem Heidelberg-Mythos und trugen ihn hinaus in die Welt. So kommt es, dass auch viele andere Nationalitäten das Heidelberger Schloss auf ihren Kurzreisen durch Europa zu den wenigen Zwischenstopps zählen.

 

Heidelberg hat zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts jährlich mehr als eine Million Besucher und etwa 900.000 Übernachtungen. Wichtigster Anlaufpunkt ist laut einer Befragung des geografischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg das Schloss mit seinen Aussichtsterrassen.

 

Das Heidelberger Schloss zählt heute zu den landeseigenen Monumenten und wird von der Einrichtung „Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg“ betreut. Aus dem Landesinfrastrukturprogramm Baden-Württemberg wurden für den Neubau eines von Max Dudler entworfenen Besucherzentrums 3 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung gestellt. Es wurde 2012 eröffnet.

 

Zudem ist das Schloss nach Angaben der Schlösserverwaltung das größte Fledermaus-Winterquartier in Nordbaden. Wegen der dort überwinternden Zwergfledermaus sowie dem Großen Mausohr wurde im Jahr 2016 der im Stückgarten vor dem Schloss stattfindende Teil des Weihnachtsmarktes auf den Friedrich-Ebert-Platz verlegt.

 

(Wikipdia)

Enochian is an angelic language used by angels in Heaven. They communicate over angel radio using this language, though in more recent years, they began communicating in English predominately. The angels, the Knights of Hell, and the Men of Letters are also familiar with an archaic dialect of the angelic language called "Pre-Enochian" or "Old Enochian". Castiel used sigils from this Enochian dialect to bind Alastair in a devil's trap he made. The Knights of Hell like Abaddon used the old Enochian sigil associated with them as their crest, leaving it behind in areas where they strike. Belphegor reveals that very few demons like Lilith, Crowley, and Abaddon have been known to understand Enochian. Enochian sigils are powerful glyphs that can be used against angels and demons and protect an area from angelic and demonic interference. Throughout Season 5, Castiel uses one to conceal Sam, Dean, and Adam from every angel in creation by carving it into their ribs.

www.supernaturalwiki.com/Enochian

 

Enochian has also been used in reciting various spells that can be used against some of the most dangerous creatures in all creation. Lily Sunder became a practitioner of Enochian Magic after Ishim taught her all their secrets, using spells that burn off pieces of her soul in exchange for longevity and access to angelic powers until it's completely burned away. The Whore of Babylon uses what appears to be an Enochian spell to harm Castiel. Lucifer's Cage can be opened and closed with the rings of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and an Enochian phrase. When angels are reverted to their "factory settings", they relay any information hidden in their minds encrypted in Enochian.

  

The Two of Swords shows a blindfolded woman, Pamela Smith has become an impetrant, she begins her initiation into Enochian magic, the artist is dressed in a white dress, holding two crossed swords. The blindfold tells us that Pamela is confused about her inner light and cannot clearly see either the problem or the solution. She may also be missing relevant information that would make her decision much clearer if she were to get it. The swords she holds are in perfect balance, suggesting that she is weighing her thoughts and addressing both sides of the situation to find the best resolution.

Behind the woman is a body of water dotted with rocky islets. Water represents emotions, and while the costume of swords is traditionally associated with the mind and intellect, its presence shows that Pamela must use both her head and her heart to weigh her options. The islands represent obstacles in his path and suggest that his decision is not as clear cut as it seems. It will have to consider the situation as a whole. The crescent moon to her right is a sign that Pamela should trust her intuition to make her choice. Pamela is also alone on the beach. His eyes are blindfolded, his arms are tied. Eight swords planted in the ground form a prison around her. However, the circle is not completely closed. So there is an exit that the blindfold prevents you from seeing. The Two of Swords indicates that you are faced with a difficult decision, but you do not know which option to take. Both possibilities may seem equally good – or equally bad – and you don't know which will lead you to the better result. You need to be able to weigh the pros and cons of each choice and then make a conscious judgment. Use both your head (your mind and intellect) and your heart (your feelings and intuition) to choose the path that is most in alignment with your Higher Self.

 

Pamela Smith represented in this card wears a blindfold, indicating that she cannot see the entirety of her circumstance. You may lack the information you need to make the right decisions. You may be missing something, such as the threats or potential risks, alternative solutions or critical pieces of information that would help guide you in a particular direction. Once you remove the blindfold and see the situation for what it really is, you will be in a much better position to find your best path forward. Research your options more, seek outside opinions and feedback and ask yourself what you might be missing.`` Alone, far from the city and its ramparts, this woman seems very isolated. The sky is gray, the landscape is bleak. There emerges from the Card a feeling of uncertainty and absence of hope. The Eight of Swords symbolizes the feeling of helplessness of the Consultant. Lost, disoriented, the Consultant does not know what to do to overcome the obstacles or challenges of his environment. The Consultant experiences the very unpleasant feeling of being “stuck”, trapped. However – and this is important to stress – the Eight of Swords is not a fatalistic card. On the Map, the young woman could free herself from her fabric ties and remove the blindfold covering her eyes. She could regain the comfort and safety of the city behind her. The blockage, the "prison" of these Swords planted in a circle therefore symbolize first of all a situation created by the Consultant himself. Quite logically, he or she could get rid of it and get by on his own. The blockage is notably due to limiting beliefs on the part of the Consultant. These limiting beliefs go on and on: “You are not capable of…”; “A man like that, caring about you!? Do not even think about it ! » ; "Returning to training at your age to change paths will never work..." These limiting thoughts end up defining our possibilities and therefore we are no longer able to do otherwise, innovate or find solutions. It also happens that the feeling of helplessness is generated by external circumstances. The Consultant “wakes up”, dissatisfied with his environment and his life and wonders how he or she could have come to this.The Eight of Swords reveals that you feel trapped and restricted by your circumstances. You believe your options are limited with no clear path out. You might be in an unfulfilling job, an abusive relationship, a significant amount of debt or a situation way out of alignment with your inner being. You are now trapped between a rock and a hard place, with no resolution available. However, take note that the woman in the card is not entirely imprisoned by the eight swords around her, and if she wanted to escape, she could. She merely needs to remove the blindfold and free herself from the self-imposed bindings that hold her back. When the Eight of Swords appears in a Tarot reading, it comes as a warning that your thoughts and beliefs are no longer serving you. You may be over-thinking things, creating negative patterns or limiting yourself by only considering the worst-case scenario. The more you think about the situation, the more you feel stuck and without any options. It is time to get out of your head and let go of those thoughts and beliefs holding you back. As you change your thoughts, you change your reality. Replace negative thoughts with positive ones, and you will start to create a more favourable situation for yourself. The Eight of Swords assures you there is a way out of your current predicament – you just need a new perspective. You already have the resources you need, but it is up to you to use those resources in a way that serves you. Others may be offering you help, or there may be an alternative solution you haven’t yet fully explored. Be open to finding the answer rather than getting stuck on the problem. The Eight of Swords is often associated with a victim mentality. You surrendered your power to an external entity, allowing yourself to become trapped and limited in some way. You may feel that it isn’t your fault – you have been placed here against your will. You may feel like the victim, waiting to be rescued, but is this energy serving you? If not, it is imperative you take back your power and personal accountability and open your eyes to the options in front of you. The fact is you do have choices, even if you do not like them. You are not powerless. At times, the Eight of Swords indicates that you are confused about whether you should stay or go, particularly if you are in a challenging situation. It is not as clear-cut as you would like, making the decision very difficult. You have one foot in, hoping things can work out, but your other foot is out the door, ready to leave. The trouble is that you worry either option could lead to negative consequences, and so you remain stuck where you are. Again, this card is asking you to get out of your head and drop down into your gut and your intuition so you can hear your inner guidance. Your thoughts are not serving you right now, but your intuition is. Trust yourself. In any case, it is necessary to "take back control" of the circumstances and to remember that in life, we always have a choice. The possibilities in front of you may not be ideal, easy or desired… but they exist! You have to be able to look them in the face, and choose the best… or the least bad.

 

www.biddytarot.com/tarot-card-meanings/minor-arcana/suit-...

 

www.biddytarot.com/tarot-card-meanings/minor-arcana/suit-...

 

In 1903 Waite succeeded Yeats as Grand Master of the Golden Dawn. His first act under his new status was a reform of the fundamental principles of the Order: he proclaimed the primacy of spiritual achievement (emphasis on esoteric knowledge and the search for Truth) over material fulfillment (which occultism in general, and magic in particular, presupposes). Seeing in this act of negating the very foundation of the Golden Dawn (namely the practice of the occult sciences) the outright annihilation of the Order, former Grand Master Yeats strongly opposed Waite.

Two camps were then formed: one bringing together the supporters of the reform and represented by William Alexander Ayton, (relatively fearful in terms of operability), Waite's right-hand man, and the other bringing together, alongside the former Grand Mr. Yeats, the curators. The feud lasted two years, after which the Yeats camp ended up going on to found its own order (La Stella Matutina, the "Morning Star")—a perfect transposition of the Golden Dawn before Waite's reform, seceding from what took then the name of Holy Order of the Golden Dawn ("Holy Order of the Golden Dawn"; the expression "holy order" illustrating more the new mystical tendencies instilled by Waite) and which continued to be shaken by internal strife until disbanded in 1915, following Waite's departure.

 

After this "schism of 1905", which was the real coup de grace for the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, certain initiates who had remained neutral in the struggle between Camp Yeats and Camp Ayton preferred to go and found, alone or in groups, their own brotherhood.

 

Arthur Edward Waite (1857-1942), wanted to be a true scholar in occultism. He wrote, among other things, "The Holy Kaballah" and "The Key to the Tarot", published in London in 1910. For Waite, symbolism is the key to the Tarot. In "The Key to the Tarot" he says, "True tarot is symbolic; it uses no other languages or other signs". One of the unique characteristics of the Arthur Edwart Waite tarot and one of the main reasons for its popularity is that all the cards, including those of the Minor Arcana, depict scenes complete with figures and symbols. The images of all Pamela Coman-Smith's cards lend themselves to an interpretation based on the conscious and unconscious reading of the scene, without the need to consult explanatory texts.

What is striking in the Tarot Rider-Waite, therefore, is above all the Minor Arcana, which are difficult to translate with the Tarot of Marseilles for most of those interested, but have suddenly become emblematic with the Tarot that Waite offers us. Therefore, these mysteries illustrated with scenes are easier to interpret.The Tarots of Wirth and Knapp Hall are to be considered to be Tarots based on "hermetic science". A science which will be strongly included in the broad fields of esoteric exploration to which the golden dawn will give access...The first decks that can be designated as decks born from the ideologies of the Golden Dawn and created according to their cosmogony is undoubtedly the Tarot Rider-Waite... It is the result of a long and meticulous research on esoteric symbols and their correspondence.

 

But the first member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn to have designed a Tarot is obviously doctor Gérard Encausse, Papus, who joined the members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in 1895. The Papus tarot would have been designed around 1899... At the beginning, it was certainly reserved for a few insider circles only... It was seen for the first time in illustration in the works of Papus, among others in "Le Tarot des Bohémiens , absolute key to the occult sciences" (1889), but the book will only be really known and accessible to the general public from its 3rd edition published in 1926. Then will follow the work "The divinatory tarot. Key to card printing and fates" (1909), reissued in large circulation also the same year of 1926. From then on, the Tarot of Papus will gain much popularity and the public will seek to obtain it... The Tarot of Papus will be diffused little by little print from the 1930s.

 

While the tarots of Papus, Wirth and the Knapp Hall were appearing almost simultaneously, the renowned house of Grimaud, for its part, was preparing to publish the Tarot which would become the reference for the general public, it was this famous modified reproduction of the Conver, proposed by Paul Marteau. It will appear in 1930 and will become the most fashionable tarot... Despite the modifications made to this Tarot, it has no affiliation with occult groups and is intended to be a Tarot in the tradition of the Tarot de Marseille.

 

That said, the Tarot which will set the tone and which will be the reference for the members of the Golden Dawn is undoubtedly the Tarot developed by Rider and Waite.

 

There are already a hundred decks that derive directly from the tarot originally designed by Rider-Waite. Not to mention pirated copies, clones, etc... This tarot has long been a reference for budding occultists and kabbalists... It still is...

 

So, in fact, there are many tarots that were designed in the ideology of the Golden Dawn!!!

 

It will first be the Tarot of Aleister Crowley which, following the Rider-Waite, will stand out and bring modifications to the "esoteric" Tarot, always with reference to the Golden Dawn, to the Kabbalah, to ancient Egypt initiates, etc... With in addition, references to sexual magic...The members of the Golden Dawn mainly used the Tarot of Waite, but during the 1950s, 1960s, they put a lot of effort into creating a Tarot that could finally be directly linked to the precepts and esoteric teachings of the Golden Dawn... A Tarot which originally wanted to be, once again, a Tarot exclusively reserved for members of the Order. This is the famous "Tarot of the Golden Dawn", so the Tarot which wants to be "officially" attested by the order...

 

But beware !! This name known as "Tarot of the Golden Dawn" is confusing... Several Tarots are decked out with the label "of the Golden Dawn"...

 

In truth, of all these tarot cards there is only one that is truly recognized by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and as such, and that is the one developed by Israel Regardie and Robert Wang from esoteric works of Samuel Liddel Matthers.

 

Robert Wang will also create the "Jungian Tarot", very appreciated also by the followers of the Golden Dawn; and perhaps even more by those interested in "modern theosophy" and in the principles elaborated by Jung.

 

The "Jungian Tarot" is quite similar to the so-called "Golden Dawn" Tarot, but is intended more for "personal evolution" than for the initiatory journey of the Order, strictly speaking... In truth these two tarots are the results of extensive research in matters of esotericism, research that has been carried out by the study centers of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Its construction, on the basis of the four elements, the celestial phenomena, the Holy Kabbalah, and a highly evolved psychology, can apparently lead its followers into the inner recesses of psychic and intuitive awareness.

 

Above all, this tarot can be used as a basis for occult study, in order to learn to possess all the aspects of the traditional "center-wisdom", and "high-science" kabbalistic... (There are many Rosicrucian references , and also references to Freemasonry and alchemy).

 

Originally, the Golden Dawn Tarot was only reserved for members of the official Order. It began to be broadcast from 1975.

 

Despite the claim of these creators, it should still be known that the vast majority of members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, will study the Tarot from the "Tarot B.O.T.A.", or the original Rider-Waite. What is striking in the Tarot Rider-Waite, therefore, is above all the Minor Arcana, which are difficult to translate with the Tarot of Marseilles for most of those interested, but have suddenly become emblematic with the Tarot that Waite offers us. Therefore, these mysteries illustrated with scenes are easier to interpret.

THE TAROT B.O.T.A.

 

It is actually a very special version of the Rider-Waite Tarot presented in a "black and white" version, and the members were invited to color their own tarots... The study of symbolism esoteric was first done using this Tarot Rider-Waite in its original version (in black and bench). Indeed, the Waite-Rider Tarot in its black and white version is the most used by Golden Dawn followers and should be considered the official Golden Dawn Tarot.

 

A nearly similar version is still used by members of the B.O.T.A. and followers of hermetic schools. (The initials B.O.T.A. mean "Builders of the Adytum", it is a traditional and fraternal association founded by Paul Foster Case, continued and extended by Ann Davies...

 

A popular theory is that author William Walker Atkinson co-wrote the legendary "Kybalion" tome with Paul Foster Case. This theory is often defended by members of the "Builders of the Adytum". B.O.T.A. offers courses and techniques based on the study of the mystical teachings of the Holy Qabalah and TAROT. In fact, this confusing story about the Tarot B.O.T.A. and writing the "Kybalion", seems to have started with a breakaway group from the B.O.T.A., "The Brotherhood of Hidden Light" (which emphasizes the "secret (or lost) knowledge of the sages of Atlantis") .

 

The members of the Golden Dawn like the members of the B.O.T.A., consider that the Rider-Waite tarot is the ultimate "reference"...

secretsdutarot.blogspot.com/2013/01/les-tarots-dits-de-la...

This dissertation seeks to define the importance of Waite’s interpretation of mediaeval and Renaissance esoterica regarding the contacting of daemons and its evolution into a body of astrological and terrestrial correspondences and intelligences that included a Biblical primordial language, or a lingua adamica. The intention and transmission of John Dee’s angel magic is linked to the philosophy outlined in his earlier works, most notably the Monas Hieroglyphica, and so this dissertation also provides a philosophical background to Dee’s angel magic. The aim of this dissertation is to establish Dee’s conversations with angels as a magic system that is a direct descendant of Solomonic and Ficinian magic with unique Kabbalistic elements. It is primarily by the Neoplatonic, Hermetic, Kabbalistic, and alchemical philosophy presented in the Monas Hieroglyphica that interest in Dee’s angel magic was transmitted through the Rosicrucian movement. Through Johann Valentin Andreae’s Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz anno 1459, the emphasis on a spiritual, inner alchemy became attached to Dee’s philosophy. Figures such as Elias Ashmole, Ebenezer Sibley, Francis Barret, and Frederick Hockley were crucial in the transmission of interest in Dee’s practical angel magic and Hermetic philosophy to the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.

Enochian Angel Magic: From John Dee to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn www.academia.edu/921740/Enochian_Angel_Magic_From_John_De...

 

The rituals of the Golden Dawn utilized Dee’s angel magic, in addition to creative Kabbalistic elements, to form a singular practice that has influenced Western esoterica of the modern age. This study utilizes a careful analysis of primary sources including the original manuscripts of the Sloane archives, the most recent scholarly editions of Dee’s works, authoritative editions of original documents linked to Rosicrucianism, and Israel Regardie’s texts on Golden Dawn practices."In Whose hands the Sun is as a sword, and the Moon as a through- thrusting fire." An elegant equation, defining the parameters of the. creation. The god declares dominion over planetary forces (Sun-Moon) and elemental forces (fire-air). He also declares control over the two types of dualities: those in which one pole is projective and the other responsive (Sun-Moon) and over those in which two forces of similar polarity are balanced (fire-air). Within the area of creation, the positive pole is attributed to the element of swords, Air, and the anti-positive pole is attributed to the element of Fire. This is reflected in the precedence followed by the elements throughout the Tablets and Calls: Air first, then Water, Earth, and Fire. "Which measure your garments in the midst of my vestures..." The word translated here as "garments" is used uniformly to mean "creation" or "being" elsewhere in the Keys. Another word is used for

"garments" in the next sentence of this same Key. Another word is also used for "midst" further on in this Key. So the translation here is questionable. A magickal image given to define this phrase shows the scene through the god's eyes as he pulls endless threads of living light out of a lamen on his chest.

Enochian magic is a system of ceremonial magic based on the 16th-century writings of John Dee and Edward Kelley, who wrote that their information, including the revealed Enochian language, was delivered to them directly by various angels. Dee's journals contain the record of these workings, the Enochian script, and the tables of correspondences used in Enochian magic. Dee and Kelley believed their visions gave them access to secrets contained within Liber Logaeth, which Dee and Kelley referred to as the "Book of Enoch".In the early 1580s, John Dee had become discontented with his progress in learning the secrets of nature. Dee wrote: I have from my youth up, desired and prayed unto God for pure and sound wisdom and understanding of truths natural and artificial, so that God's wisdom, goodness, and power bestowed in the frame of the world might be brought in some bountiful measure under the talent of my capacity... So for many years and in many places, far and near, I have sought and studied many books in sundry languages, and have conferred with sundry men, and have laboured with my own reasonable discourse, to find some inkling, gleam, or beam of those radical truths. But after all my endeavours I could find no other way to attain such wisdom but by the Extraordinary Gift, and not by any vulgar school, doctrine, or human invention. Enochian magic involves the evocation and commanding of various spirits.He subsequently began to turn energetically towards the supernatural as a means to acquire knowledge. He sought to contact spirits through the use of a scryer or crystal-gazer, which he thought would act as an intermediary between himself and the angels. Dee's first attempts with several scryers were unsatisfactory, but in 1582 he met Edward Kelley (1555–1597/8), then calling himself Edward Talbot to disguise his conviction for "coining" or forgery, who impressed him greatly with his abilities.Dee took Kelley into his service and began to devote all his energies to his supernatural pursuits. These "spiritual conferences" or "actions" were conducted with intense Christian piety, always after periods of purification, prayer and fasting. Dee was convinced of the benefits they could bring to mankind. The character of Kelley is harder to assess: some conclude that he acted with cynicism, but delusion or self-deception cannot be ruled out. Kelley's "output" is remarkable for its volume, intricacy and vividness. Through Kelley, the angels laboriously dictated several books in this way, some in a previously unknown language which Dee called Angelical — now more commonly known as Enochian.The two pillars of modern Enochian magic, as outlined in Liber Chanokh, are the Elemental Tablets (including the "Tablet of Union") and the Keys of the 30 Aethyrs. The Enochian model of the universe is depicted by Dee as a square called "The Great Table" (made up of the 4 Elemental Tablets and incorporating the Tablet of Union), surrounded by 30 concentric circles representing the 30 Aethyrs or Aires. The Angelical Keys:

The essence of Enochian magic involves the recitation of one or more of nineteen Angelical Keys, which are also referred to as Calls. These keys are a series of rhetorical exhortations which function as evocations when read in the Enochian language. They are used to effect the "opening of 'gates' into various mystical realms." The first eighteen keys are used to 'open' the realms of the elements and sub-elements, which are mapped onto the quadrants and sub-quadrants of the Great Tablet.[clarification needed][citation needed]. The nineteenth key is used to 'open' the Thirty Aethyrs. The Aethyrs are conceived of as forming a map of the entire universe in the form of concentric rings which expand outward from the innermost to the outermost Aethyr. The Great Table: The angels of the four quarters are symbolized by the Elemental Tablets — four large magical word-square Tables (collectively called "The Great Table"). Most of the well-known Enochian angels are drawn from the Elemenal Tablets of the Great Table. Each of the four tablets (representing the Elements of Earth, Air, Fire and Water), is collectively "governed" by a hierarchy of spiritual entities which runs (as explained in Crowley's Liber Chanokh) as the Three Holy Names, the Great Elemental King, the Six Seniors (aka Elders) (these make a total of 24 Elders as seen in the Revelation of St. John), the Two Divine Names of the Calvary Cross, the Kerubim, and the Sixteen Lesser Angels. Each tablet is further divided into four sub-quadrants (sometimes referred to as 'sub-angles') where we find the names of various Archangels and Angels who govern the quarters of the world. In this way, the entire universe, visible and invisible, is depicted as teeming with living intelligences. Each of the Elemental tablets is also divided into four sections by a figure known as the Great Central Cross. The Great Central cross consists of the two central vertical columns of the Elemental Tablet (the Linea Patris and Linea Filii) and the central horizontal line (known as the Linea Spiritus Sancti). In addition to the four Elemental Tablets, a twenty-square cell known as the Tablet of Union (aka The Black Cross, representing Spirit) completes the representation of the five traditional elemental attributes used in magic - Earth, Air, Water, Fire and Spirit. The Tablet of Union is derived from within the Great Central Cross of the Great Table. The Thirty Æthyrs : The 30 Aethyrs are numbered from 30 (TEX, the lowest and consequently the closest to the Great Table) to 1 (LIL, the highest, representing the Supreme Attainment. Magicians working the Enochian system record their impressions and visions within each of the successive Enochian Aethyrs. Each of the 30 Aethyrs is populated by "Governors" (3 for each Aethyr, except TEX which has four, thus a total of 91 Governors). Each of the governors has a sigil which can be traced onto the Great Tablet of Earth.

The Holy Table: a table with a top engraved with a Hexagram, a surrounding border of Enochian letters, and in the middle a Twelvefold table (cell) engraved with individual Enochian letters. According to Duquette and Hyatt, the Holy Table "does not directly concern Elemental or Aethyrical workings. Angels found on the Holy Table are not called forth in these operations."

The Seven Planetary Talismans: The names on these talismans (which are engraved on tin and placed on the surface of the Holy Table) are those of the Goetia. According to Duquette and Hyatt, "this indicates (or at least implies) Dee's familiarity with the Lemegeton and his attempt, at least early in his workings, to incorporate it in the Enochian system."] As with the Holy Table, Spirits found on these talismans are not called forth in these operations. The Sigillum dei Aemeth, Holy Sevenfold Table, or 'Seal of God's Truth': The symbol derives from Liber Juratus (aka The Sworn Book of Honorius or Grimoire of Honorius, of which Dee owned a copy). Five versions of this complex diagram are made from bee's wax, and engraved with the various lineal figures, letters and numbers. The four smaller ones are placed under the feet of the Holy Table. The fifth and larger one (about nine inches in diameter) is covered with a red cloth, placed on the Holy Table, and is used to support the "Shew-Stone" or "Speculum" (crystal or other device used for scrying). Scrying is an essential element of the magical system. Dee and Kelly's technique was to gaze into a concave obsidian mirror. Crowley habitually held a large topaz mounted upon a wooden cross to his forehead. Other methods include gazing into crystals, ink, fire or even a blank TV screen.Little else became of Dee's work until late in the nineteenth century,[citation needed] when it was incorporated by a brotherhood of adepts in England. The rediscovery of Dee and Kelley's material by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in the 1880s led to Mathers developing the material into a comprehensive system of ceremonial magic. Magicians invoked the Enochian deities whose names were written on the tablets. They also traveled in their bodies of light into these subtle regions and recorded their psychic experiences. The two major branches of the system were then grafted on to the Adeptus Minor curriculum of the Golden Dawn.

 

According to Aleister Crowley, the magician starts with the 30th aethyr and works up to the first, exploring only so far as his level of initiation will permit. According to Chris Zalewski's 1994 book, the Golden Dawn also invented the game of Enochian chess, in which aspects of the Enochian Tablets were used for divination. They used four chessboards without symbols on them, just sets of colored squares, and each board is associated with one of the four elements of magic. Florence Farr founded the Sphere Group which also experimented with Enochian magic.Aleister Crowley's work with Enochian magick generally follows the Golden Dawn system. He is known primarily for his explorations of the 30 Aethyrs, published in "The Vision and the Voice". This work established the idea that Aethyr might represent a means of initiation, and set a standard for methodical exploration, which few have equaled. It also fixed Crowley's particular perspective on the process of transcendence in the minds of many students of the occult. Crowley envisioned the Aethyr as being related to the sephiroth of the tree of life in groups of three. He also mentions that each Aethyr "bends" into the next Aethyr above it, in a way, so that in progressing through the Aethyrs from the last to the first, one also withdraws one's being from the lower levels and already experienced (this is parallel to the technique he describes in the Liber Yod, in which the magician achieves union with the deity by gradually banishing all other levels and powers.Under this conception the Aethyrs ZAX, whose parts have names formed from the cross of union, is the highest of the three attributed to Chesed. Thus, it is the last Aethyr encountered before entering the Supernal Triad and achieving transcendence. Crowley envisioned this movement as crossing an "abyss" or space, during which the magician encounters an Enochian devil named Choronzon dwelling therein. Crowley's other contribution to Enochian magick was adapting the pyramid system of the GD for use with the sex magick of the O.T.O. In this technique, physical representations of the pyramids are made for an angel's name, but inverted to form the square "cups". These serve as talismans, which are charged using the end product of the sex magick operation.

 

Paul Foster Case (1884–1954), an occultist who began his magical career with the Alpha et Omega, was critical of the Enochian system. According to Case, the system of Dee and Kelley was partial from the start, an incomplete system derived from an earlier and complete Qabalistic system, and lacked sufficient protection methods. Case believed he had witnessed the physical breakdown of a number of practitioners of Enochian magic, due to the lack of protective methods. When Case founded his own magical order, the Builders of the Adytum (B.O.T.A.), he removed the Enochian system and substituted elemental tablets based on Qabalistic formulae communicated to him by Master R.The first Enochian Key or Call is a recapitulation of the steps by which the creator of the system brought it into being. The Key follows the same macrocosmic-to-microcosmic progression used in the example consecration ritual, but then supplements this with a response from the microcosm directed at the macrocosm. Note that the description of the downward current contains seven significant phrases, suggesting the planets and sun, the macrocosm, while the description of the response contains five significant phrases, suggesting the four elements and elemental spirit, the microcosm."...and trussed you together as the palms of my hands." The magickal image continues by showing the god gathering the fibers of light into a bundle or cable. The god concentrates the energies within the area of work in preparation for shaping."Whose seats I garnished with the fire of gathering, which beautified your garments with admiration." Having generated the positive or spiritual pole of the creation, the god now looks to the anti-positive or material pole. The "seats" are the squares of the tablets in their two-dimensional form. The god embodies a part of his will in the Tablets, defining the order and place to which the spiritual energies will be attracted and attached. When the energies are attached to the Tablets, the pattern of will embodied in the Tablets extends back along their path to the positive pole, conditioning all the perceptible expressions (the "garments") of the energies.. The usual assumption of later magicians (which is not universally accepted) is that the remaining Calls refer to the "Minor Angles" within the Tablets.

 

The Golden Dawn method of associating the Callings with the tablets and Lesser Angles has become the accepted "standard". Donald Tyson recently proposed an alternative method which has received some attention

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enochian_magic

 

SUMMARY OF PATH POSITIONS IN ACHAD'S TREE OF LIFE

Path Trump Connects with:

Aleph The Fool Malkuth Yesod

Beth The Magician Malkuth Hod

Gimel The Priestess Yesod Hod

Daleth The Empress Malkuth Netzach

Heh The Emperor Tiphereth Geburah

Vav The Hierophant Hod Netzach

Zain The Lovers Hod Tiphereth

Cheth The Chariot Yesod Netzach

Teth Strength Netzach Tiphereth

YodT he Hermit Hod Geburah

Kaph The Wheel of Fortune Kether Chokmah

Lamed Justice Netzach Chesed

Mem The Hanged Man Yesod Tiphereth

Nun Death Geburah Chesed

Samek Temperance Chesed Chokmah

AyinThe DevilTiphereth Binah

PehThe Tower Geburah Binah

Tzaddi The Star Binah Chokmah

Qoph The Moon Tiphereth Chesed

Resh The Sun Tiphereth Chokmah

Shin Judgement Kether Tiphereth

TauT he Universe Kether Binah

"To whom I made a law to govern the holy ones," The word translated as "holy ones" appears to derive from the same root as the enochian words for "fire", suggesting that the holy ones are those who possess the spiritual will. The god specifies the manner in which his creation will respond to the mages and adepts."Moreover, you lifted up your voices and sware obedience and faith..."The connection between the two poles having been made, and the conditions of their interaction being set, the angels of the creation voice their response to the god, swearing to continue to follow the god's will. "...to him that liveth and triumpheth," The spirits of the Tablets affirm the existence of their creator by saying that he lives, and affirm the success of the act of creation by saying that he triumphs. The echoing of the god's statements by the spirits of the tablets also suggests that the conditions the god laid on the creation as a whole

are reflected in miniature within the creation. It shall be shown that this is the case with the Tablets as we proceed.In the remainder of the Key, the magician using it calls upon the

spirits to respond to him fully and openly. The word translated here as "servant" might be better rendered as "minister" or "representative". The magician asserts that he has a right to demand a response from the spirits because his acts are in accord with the will of their creator.

www.sacred-texts.com/eso/enoch/1stkey.txt

 

Angelic chatter, but very little solid information. Additionally, the reader must deal with forays into apocalyptic religion, Elizabethan politics, Dee's and Kelly's personal issues, and the various irrelevant issues Dee insisted on inserting into the work. Chronologically, Dee and Kelly's work falls into three highly productive periods separated by months when nothing of particular value was received. The material received in each period generally stands on its own, and is only loosely related to that of the other periods. but the term is often applied to all work. First Period: The Heptarchia Mystica. Equipment: Ring, Lamen, and Holy Table The angels claimed that the ring they designed for Dee was the same one used by Solomon to control demons. The ring had a full band, to which was attached a rectangular plate. The letters PELE (coming from Latin for "he will do miracles") were inscribed in the four corners. In the center was a circle crossed by a horizontal line, with the letter "V" inscribed above and the letter "L" below. Two different lamens were given to Dee. The first bears a generic resemblance to various sigils of goetia being an assortment of free-form lines and oddly placed letters. The giving being indicated that it was to be made of gold and worn every time and place for the purpose of protection. given by an evil spirit. During the spring session of 1583, the angels indicated that a session had been scheduled in which detailed instructions would be given for the use of Heptarchic magick. If this session took place, it is not in the records that have survived; but some idea of the general technique can be gathered from the comments in other parts of the recording. The magician would be seated at the Holy Table, wearing the ring and lamen. table in front of him. He would hold an appropriate Heptarchic king's talisman in one hand, with a talisman of the names of the king's ministers placed beneath his feet. The magician would then invite the king with petition and prayer, followed by petitions to his prince, and invocations of the six chief ministers. They would appear in the stone of clairvoyance, whereupon the magician would instruct them to accomplish the task he desired.The Liber Loagaeth is the most mysterious part of Dee and Kelly's work. It is also known by different names like

book of Enoch and the Liber Mysteriorum Sextus et Sanctus. So far no one has seriously attempted to use it, or to understand its nature, beyond what is found in the diaries. According to the angels, "loagaeth" means "speech of God", this book is supposed to be, literally, the words by which God created all things. It is supposed to be the language in which the "true names" of all things are known, giving power over them. As described in the Liber Mysteriorum Quintis, the book was to consist of 48 "leaves", of which each contains a 49x49 grid. Infact, the book actually presented to Kelly is somewhat different. It contains 49 "invocations" in an unknown language, 95 square tables filled with letters and numbers, 2 similar tables not filled, and 4 drawn tables twice the width of the others. 2 "leaves" are recorded, but these are not included in the final book, and apparently serve as an introduction or prologue to the work. this term. There is no translation by which this could be judged in detail, but the text lacks the logical repetitions and word placements which are characteristic of the 48 Enochian invocations given in later years. There is no apparent grammar in the text. Donald Laycock remarks that the language is strongly alliterative and repetitively rhyming, while Robert Turner calls it "glossolalic". many "languages", all being spoken immediately. The purpose of the Loagaeth has been said to be the unleashing/introduction of a new age on earth, the last age before the end of all things. Instructions for use for this purpose were never given; the angels continually put it off, saying that only God could decide when the time has come. During the presentation of the two leaves of the Liber Mysteriorum Quintis, in the stone of clairvoyance an angel moved successively towards letters, and Kelly pronounced the names of the angelic character. Dee transcribed a version using the Roman alphabet, apparently with the intention of redoing it in angelic characters at a later date. of Kelly; this light was seen by both of them. Once the light entered Kelly's head, his consciousness was transformed so that he could understand the text as he read it. He was strongly commanded not to provide a translation, explaining that God would choose the time for it to be revealed. He provided the translation of a few of the words, but it was insufficient to capture the meaning of the text as a whole. When the light withdrew from Kelly's head, he immediately ceased to understand the text, and could no longer see it in the stone. On a few occasions, the light continued to work within him for a short time after the session ended, and at those times Dee noticed that Kelly said many wonderful (and unrecorded) things about the nature of the texts. But the moment the light went out, Kelly couldn't understand it anymore, nor remember what he had said during the previous moment. The record indicates that the 23rd line of the first leaf was a preface to the creation and distinction of the angels, and the 24th line a pleasant invitation to the good angels. Nothing else is recorded concerning the purpose of this book.

Enochian Magic and the Apocalypse

There are 2 major threads of thought in Christian millennialism. One thread, called postmillennialism, is largely utopian in nature. He sees the millennium as the beginning of a period of progressive perfection of conditions on Earth; the basic principle is that the world must be perfected and the city of God built on earth before Christ returns, and only after Christ returns will the world end. Two decades after Dee, this form of millennialism was the driving force behind the religious groups shoeing the English colonization of America. Dee's own thought contains many post-millennial ideals in the search for Enochian magick, one of his goals was to gain means to bring earthly governments and societies to God's design, thereby bringing the return of Christ closer. quickly. The other thread, called premillennialism, is the more catastrophic variety. In this version, the typical scenario is the return of Christ, and then mankind's current "evil" societies will be destroyed in worldwide disasters, while the elect are preserved from evil. After the world is destroyed, Christ will join the faithful in a city built by God to rule over the earth for a thousand years. While there is a strong millennial flavor to the angel's statements, they are almost uniformly of the postmillennial variety. The angels divided the world into four ages. The first of these ages began with the creation and ended with the flood; the second ended with the appearance of Christ. The revelation of Liber Loagaeth ended the third age and triggered the final age, in which the world would be brought to perfection before Christ's return. . A particular passage makes this clear.

The Enochian Magical System of Golden Dawn

Regardie, Israel, The Golden Dawn, Llewellyn Publications, 1971, St Paul, MN. Reprinted at regular intervals. Contains detailed descriptions of the Enochian Magical System developed from GD. Zalewski, Pat. Golden Dawn Enochian Magic, Llewellyn Certainly there are influences of the Qabalah (the Sigillum Dei Aemeth, the communications of Uriel, Michael...) but this is not the originality and the strength of the system. Some practitioners of Enochian magic said that it was a Qabala (when I hear a Qabala I tend to write Kabbalah, like in the theater) that put into action the world of Atziluth, the highest of the four Qabalah classic. It's quite difficult to verify...even ! (See the introduction to the Necrono-micon at Belfond Editions).

 

But back to Enochian magick proper. The successors of the G.. D.. today reorganize its system and Schueler in his Enochian Magic) gives the material and the rituals "step by step" ("step by step"). Americans (and us too) like to practice if it is simple and impressive... The investigation by Enochian magic generally gives results, we cannot really say that they are controllable since they do not correspond to any standard of experiences already lived by the inventors of this practice.

 

Be that as it may, the Enochian, this language with its grammar and its syntax, this magical system and its original Theogony, remains a mystery that should not be taken for a simple variant of this or that traditional system already known. It is therefore useful when approaching it to master the fundamental elements which are used for its use without being subservient to the rituals of the pentagrams and hexagrams, to their signs, to the notions of Qabala of the G., D.., etc. This will make it possible to know what is original or what is borrowed in the Enochian, and what one can think of such or such contemporary development. A culture that will provide some points of reference in our consumer society where the practice of magic has much in common with video games or the daily television session.

 

In this, the most honorable goal (if it can be a question of honour) is the success of the experience known as the "Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel", i.e. contact with one's true will, devoid of intention, in other words his heart. But it also applies to solving the various problems of life. After all, a magic is white or black only according to the use that is made of it... Let's say that we are still far from the religious John Dee. In fact not, for if Dee's conscious aims and methods were very far from those of our contemporaries, would ultimately the adventures and misadventures of his life, the problem of his relationship with Kelly evidently culminating in the ritually ordered exchange what they did with their wives would not be indications that this practice was beginning to ferment the elements of their consciences into a quintessential non-conformist?

 

MATTHEW LEON.

 

This text constitutes the introduction to the "Book of the gathering of forces" Editions RAMUEL 1994

 

Today we can no longer answer, lacking the benchmarks of a conventional morality no longer existing in the heart of the modern magician. But what is left? On what do we base ourselves if our practice has not yet allowed us an unambiguous contact with our heart, if our magical training lets us wander in the imagination that we have shaped? Publications 1990, St Paul, MN.

 

Synesthesia (American English) or synaesthesia (British English) is a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. People who report a lifelong history of such experiences are known as synesthetes. Awareness of synesthetic perceptions varies from person to person. In one common form of synesthesia, known as grapheme–color synesthesia or color–graphemic synesthesia, letters or numbers are perceived as inherently colored.In spatial-sequence, or number form synesthesia, numbers, months of the year, or days of the week elicit precise locations in space (e.g., 1980 may be "farther away" than 1990), or may appear as a three-dimensional map (clockwise or counterclockwise). Synesthetic associations can occur in any combination and any number of senses or cognitive pathways. Little is known about how synesthesia develops. It has been suggested that synesthesia develops during childhood when children are intensively engaged with abstract concepts for the first time. This hypothesis—referred to as semantic vacuum hypothesis—could explain why the most common forms of synesthesia are grapheme-color, spatial sequence, and number form. These are usually the first abstract concepts that educational systems require children to learn. The earliest recorded case of synesthesia is attributed to the Oxford University academic and philosopher John Locke, who, in 1690, made a report about a blind man who said he experienced the color scarlet when he heard the sound of a trumpet. However, there is disagreement as to whether Locke described an actual instance of synesthesia or was using a metaphor. The first medical account came from German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs in 1812. The term is from the Ancient Greek σύν syn, 'together', and αἴσθησις aisthēsis, 'sensation'.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia

When Pamela Coleman Smith was attending the Pratt Institute of Art, she realized that she possessed a high degree of sound-color synesthesia, i.e., she was able to visualize colors and forms while listening to music and could transmit those visualizations into tangible works of art. Modern psychologists define synesthesia as a crossing-over of sensory input. Depending upon the type of synesthesia, individuals are able to hear colors, see music, smell words, etc. Many people, particularly artists, possess this phenomenon to some extent; however, Pamela possessed sound-color synesthesia to an exceptionally high degree. She was able to create sound paintings just by unconsciously drawing while listening to passages of music. She embodied the Symbolist ideal in this area. Many examples of her work in this area have survived, including three watercolors in the possession of the Stieglitz/Georgia O'Keeffe Archive. In July 1908, an article appeared in The Strand Magazine entitled "Pictures in Music." The article included six black and white images of her music paintings (see below) and provided a long quotation by her which described how her art was created. A pertinent excerpt from that article is as follows: Do you see pictures in music? When you hear a Beethoven symphony or a sonata by Schumann, do mystic human figures and landscapes float before your eyes ? It is by no means new or uncommon for a composer to have a distinct picture in his mind when he sets himself to create a work. Schumann saw children at play in an embowered wood, dancing merrily until, lo ! the sudden advent of a satyr sent them shrieking to their homes. Few, however, have been able to delineate their hallucinations born of music.

Mendelssohn, who was no mean draughtsman, was often asked to do so, but always refused. "It is like asking a sculptor to paint a portrait of his statue," he once said. " All art is one, just as the human body is one, but each of the members has its functions. It is the function of music to hear, not to see." Nevertheless, it is highly interesting to see music translated in the terms of a sister art, and this is what a clever artist, Miss Pamela Colman Smith, has done, in pictures which are published now for the first time in The Strand Magazine. Many of the compositions selected by the artist will instantly be recognized as conveying, in quite a surprising way, a vivid idea of the music as a whole. Every reader can ascertain for himself whether he possesses this peculiar psychic gift—this power of conjuring up music pictures. When you next hear a famous sonata, close your eyes and see what, if any, "pictures" pass before the eye of your brain. Under the magical influence of music the soul has glimpses of wondrous shapes, lit by the light that never was on sea or land. "You ask me how these pictures are evolved," said Miss Colman Smith. "They are not pictures of the music theme — pictures of the flying notes—not conscious illustrations of the name given to a piece of music, but just what I see when I hear music—thoughts loosened and set free by the spell of sound. "When I take a brush in hand and the music begins, it is like unlocking the door into a beautiful country. There, stretched far away, are plains and mountains and the billowy sea, and as the music forms a net of sound the people who dwell there enter the scene; tall, slow-moving, stately queens, with jewelled crowns and garments gay or sad, who walk on mountain - tops or stand beside the shore, watching the water - people. These water-folk are passionless, and sway or fall with little heed of time; they toss the spray and, bending down, dive headlong through the deep. "There are the dwellers, too, of the great plain, who sit and brood, made of stone and motionless; the trees, which slumber till some elf goes by with magic spear and wakes the green to life ; towers, white and tall, standing against the darkening sky— Those tall white towers that one sees afar, Topping the mountain crests like crowns of snow. Their silence hangs so heavy in the air That thoughts are stifled. "Then huddling crowds, who carry spears, hasten across the changing scene. Sunsets fade from rose to grey, and clouds scud across the sky. "For a long time the land I saw when hearing Beethoven was unpeopled; hills, plains, ruined towers, churches by the sea. After a time I saw far off a little company of spearmen ride away across the plain. But now the clanging sea is strong with the salt of the lashing spray and full of elemental life; the riders of the waves, the Queen of Tides, who carries in her hand the pearl-like moon, and bubbles gleaming on the inky wave. "Often when hearing Bach I hear bells ringing in the sky, rung by whirling cords held in the hands of maidens dressed in brown. There is a rare freshness in the air, like morning on a mountain-top, with opal-coloured mists that chase each other fast across the scene. "Chopin brings night ; gardens where mystery and dread lurk under every bush, but joy and passion throb within the air, and the cold moon bewitches all the scene. There is a garden that I often see, with moonlight glistening on the vine-leaves, and drooping roses with pale petals fluttering down, tall, misty trees and purple sky, and lovers wandering there. A drawing of that garden I have shown to several people and asked them if they could play the music that I heard when I drew it. They have all, without any hesitation, played the same. I do not know the name, but— well, I know the music of that place."

 

pcs2051.tripod.com/synesthesia.htm

  

beinecke.library.yale.edu/digitallibrary/asgo.html

Visiting the Cemetery this evening a sliver of sun shone through the clouds and lit up this fine strong dominating tree that towers the external back wall of the graveyard, like a super trooper.

 

It caught my eye and provoked some thoughts of life after death, hence this capture, posting to Flickr to archive the moment and enjoy time and again.

 

Resurrection

 

Resurrection is the concept of coming back to life after death. In a number of ancient religions, a dying-and-rising god is a deity which dies and resurrects. The death and resurrection of Jesus, an example of resurrection, is the central focus of Christianity.

 

As a religious concept, it is used in two distinct respects: a belief in the resurrection of individual souls that is current and ongoing (Christian idealism, realized eschatology), or else a belief in a singular resurrection of the dead at the end of the world. The resurrection of the dead is a standard eschatological belief in the Abrahamic religions.

 

Some believe the soul is the actual vehicle by which people are resurrected.

Christian theological debate ensues with regard to what kind of resurrection is factual – either a spiritual resurrection with a spirit body into Heaven, or a material resurrection with a restored human body. While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to Heaven was in a material body, a very small minority believe it was spiritual.

 

There are documented rare cases of the return to life of the clinically dead which are classified scientifically as examples of the Lazarus syndrome, a term originating from the Biblical story of the Resurrection of Lazarus.

 

Etymology

Resurrection, from the Latin noun resurrectio -onis, from the verb rego, "to make straight, rule" + preposition sub, "under", altered to subrigo and contracted to surgo, surrexi, surrectum + preposition re-, "again", thus literally "a straightening from under again".

 

Religion

 

Ancient religions in the Near East

 

See also: Dying-and-rising god

The concept of resurrection is found in the writings of some ancient non-Abrahamic religions in the Middle East. A few extant Egyptian and Canaanite writings allude to dying and rising gods such as Osiris and Baal. Sir James Frazer in his book The Golden Bough relates to these dying and rising gods, but many of his examples, according to various scholars, distort the sources. Taking a more positive position, Tryggve Mettinger argues in his recent book that the category of rise and return to life is significant for the following deities: Ugaritic Baal, Melqart, Adonis, Eshmun, Osiris and Dumuzi.

 

Ancient Greek religion

 

In ancient Greek religion a number of men and women were made physically immortal as they were resurrected from the dead. Asclepius was killed by Zeus, only to be resurrected and transformed into a major deity. Achilles, after being killed, was snatched from his funeral pyre by his divine mother Thetis and resurrected, brought to an immortal existence in either Leuce, Elysian plains or the Islands of the Blessed. Memnon, who was killed by Achilles, seems to have received a similar fate. Alcmene, Castor, Heracles, and Melicertes, were also among the figures sometimes considered to have been resurrected to physical immortality. According to Herodotus's Histories, the seventh century BC sage Aristeas of Proconnesus was first found dead, after which his body disappeared from a locked room. Later he found not only to have been resurrected but to have gained immortality.

 

Many other figures, like a great part of those who fought in the Trojan and Theban wars, Menelaus, and the historical pugilist Cleomedes of Astupalaea, were also believed to have been made physically immortal, but without having died in the first place. Indeed, in Greek religion, immortality originally always included an eternal union of body and soul. The philosophical idea of an immortal soul was a later invention, which, although influential, never had a breakthrough in the Greek world. As may be witnessed even into the Christian era, not least by the complaints of various philosophers over popular beliefs, traditional Greek believers maintained the conviction that certain individuals were resurrected from the dead and made physically immortal and that for the rest of us, we could only look forward to an existence as disembodied and dead souls.

 

This traditional religious belief in physical immortality was generally denied by the Greek philosophers. Writing his Lives of Illustrious Men (Parallel Lives) in the first century CE, the Middle Platonic philosopher Plutarch's chapter on Romulus gave an account of the mysterious disappearance and subsequent deification of this first king of Rome, comparing it to traditional Greek beliefs such as the resurrection and physical immortalization of Alcmene and Aristeas the Proconnesian, "for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's work-shop, and his friends coming to look for him, found his body vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met him traveling towards Croton." Plutarch openly scorned such beliefs held in traditional ancient Greek religion, writing, "many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying creatures naturally mortal."

 

The parallel between these traditional beliefs and the later resurrection of Jesus was not lost on the early Christians, as Justin Martyr argued: "when we say ... Jesus Christ, our teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propose nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you consider sons of Zeus." (1 Apol. 21). There is, however, no belief in a general resurrection in ancient Greek religion, as the Greeks held that not even the gods were able to recreate flesh that had been lost to decay, fire or consumption.

 

The notion of a general resurrection of the dead was therefore apparently quite preposterous to the Greeks. This is made clear in Paul's Areopagus discourse. After having first told about the resurrection of Jesus, which makes the Athenians interested to hear more, Paul goes on, relating how this event relates to a general resurrection of the dead:

 

"Therefore having overlooked the times of ignorance, God is now declaring to men that all everywhere should repent, because He has fixed a day in which He will judge the world in righteousness through a Man whom He has appointed, having furnished proof to all men by raising Him from the dead." Now when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some began to sneer, but others said, `We shall hear you again concerning this."

 

Christianity

 

Resurrection of Jesus

 

In Christianity, resurrection most critically concerns the Resurrection of Jesus, but also includes the resurrection of Judgment Day known as the Resurrection of the Dead by those Christians who subscribe to the Nicene Creed (which is the majority or Mainstream Christianity), as well as the resurrection miracles done by Jesus and the prophets of the Old Testament. Some churches distinguish between raising the dead (a resumption of mortal life) and a resurrection (the beginning of an immortal life).

 

Resurrection of Jesus

Christians regard the resurrection of Jesus as the central doctrine in Christianity. Others take the Incarnation of Jesus to be more central; however, it is the miracles – and particularly his Resurrection – which provide validation of his incarnation. According to Paul, the entire Christian faith hinges upon the centrality of the resurrection of Jesus and the hope for a life after death. The Apostle Paul wrote in his first letter to the Corinthians: If only for this life we have hope in Christ, we are to be pitied more than all men. But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep.

 

Resurrection

Miracles of Jesus § Resurrection of the dead

During the Ministry of Jesus on earth, before his death, Jesus commissioned his Twelve Apostles to, among other things, raise the dead. In the New Testament, Jesus is said to have raised several persons from death. These resurrections included the daughter of Jairus shortly after death, a young man in the midst of his own funeral procession, and Lazarus, who had been buried for four days. According to the Gospel of Matthew, after Jesus's resurrection, many of those previously dead came out of their tombs and entered Jerusalem, where they appeared to many.

 

Similar resurrections are credited to Christian apostles and saints. Peter allegedly raised a woman named Dorcas (called Tabitha), and Paul the Apostle revived a man named Eutychus who had fallen asleep and fell from a window to his death, according to the book of Acts. Proceeding the apostolic era, many saints were said to resurrect the dead, as recorded in Orthodox Christian hagiographies.[citation needed] St Columba supposedly raised a boy from the dead in the land of Picts .

 

Most Christians understand these miraculous resurrections to be of a different nature than the resurrection of Jesus and the future resurrection of the dead. The raising of Lazarus and others from the dead could also be called "resuscitations" or "reanimations", since the life given to them is presumably temporary in nature—there is no suggestion in the Bible or hagiographic traditions that these people became truly immortal. In contrast, the resurrection of Jesus and the future resurrection of the dead will abolish death once and for all (see Isaiah 25:8, 1 Corinthians 15:26, 2 Timothy 1:10, Revelation 21:4).

 

Resurrection of the Dead

 

Christianity started as a religious movement within 1st-century Judaism (late Second Temple Judaism), and it retains what the New Testament itself claims was the Pharisaic belief in the afterlife and Resurrection of the Dead. Whereas this belief was only one of many beliefs held about the World to Come in Second Temple Judaism, and was notably rejected by both the Sadducees and, according to Josephus, the Pharisees, this belief became dominant within Early Christianity and already in the Gospels of Luke and John included an insistence on the resurrection of the flesh. This was later rejected by gnostic teachings, which instead continued the Pauline insistence that flesh and bones had no place in heaven.

 

Most modern Christian churches continue to uphold the belief that there will be a final Resurrection of the Dead and World to Come, perhaps as prophesied by the Apostle Paul when he said: "...he hath appointed a day, in the which he will judge the world..." (Acts 17:31 KJV) and "...there shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the just and unjust." (Acts 24:15 KJV).

 

Belief in the Resurrection of the Dead, and Jesus's role as judge, is codified in the Apostles' Creed, which is the fundamental creed of Christian baptismal faith. The Book of Revelation also makes many references about the Day of Judgment when the dead will be raised up.

 

Difference From Platonic philosophy

In Platonic philosophy and other Greek philosophical thought, at death the soul was said to leave the inferior body behind. The idea that Jesus was resurrected spiritually rather than physically even gained popularity among some Christian teachers, whom the author of 1 John declared to be antichrists. Similar beliefs appeared in the early church as Gnosticism. However, in Luke 24:39, the resurrected Jesus expressly states "behold my hands and my feet, that it is I myself. Handle me and see, for a spirit does not have flesh and bones as you see I have."

 

Islam

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: ‫يوم القيامة‬‎‎) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.

 

Judaism and Samaritanism

There are three explicit examples in the Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead:

* The prophet Elijah prays and God raises a young boy from death (1 Kings 17:17-24)

* Elisha raises the son of the Shunammite woman (2 Kings 4:32-37); this was the very same child whose birth he previously foretold (2 Kings 4:8-16)

* A dead man's body that was thrown into the dead Elisha's tomb is resurrected when the body touches Elisha's bones (2 Kings 13:21)

 

During the period of the Second Temple, there developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection. The concept of resurrection of the physical body is found in 2 Maccabees, according to which it will happen through recreation of the flesh.[17] Resurrection of the dead also appears in detail in the extra-canonical books of Enoch,[18] in Apocalypse of Baruch, and 2 Esdras. According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism Philip R. Davies, there is “little or no clear reference … either to immortality or to resurrection from the dead” in the Dead Sea scrolls texts.

 

Both Josephus and the New Testament record that the Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife, but the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not. According to Josephus, who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only the soul was immortal and the souls of good people will be reincarnated and “pass into other bodies,” while “the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment.” Paul, who also was a Pharisee, said that at the resurrection what is "sown as a natural body is raised a spiritual body." Jubilees seems to refer to the resurrection of the soul only, or to a more general idea of an immortal soul.

 

According to Herbert C. Brichto, writing in Reform Judaism's Hebrew Union College Annual, the family tomb is the central concept in understanding biblical views of the afterlife. Brichto states that it is "not mere sentimental respect for the physical remains that is...the motivation for the practice, but rather an assumed connection between proper sepulture and the condition of happiness of the deceased in the afterlife".

 

According to Brichto, the early Israelites apparently believed that the graves of family, or tribe, united into one, and that this unified collectivity is to what the Biblical Hebrew term Sheol refers, the common Grave of humans. Although not well defined in the Tanakh, Sheol in this view was a subterranean underworld where the souls of the dead went after the body died. The Babylonians had a similar underworld called Aralu, and the Greeks had one known as Hades. For biblical references to Sheol see Genesis 42:38, Isaiah 14:11, Psalm 141:7, Daniel 12:2, Proverbs 7:27 and Job 10:21,22, and 17:16, among others. According to Brichto, other Biblical names for Sheol were: Abaddon (ruin), found in Psalm 88:11, Job 28:22 and Proverbs 15:11; Bor (the pit), found in Isaiah 14:15, 24:22, Ezekiel 26:20; and Shakhat (corruption), found in Isaiah 38:17, Ezekiel 28:8.

 

Zen Buddhism

There are stories in Buddhism where the power of resurrection was allegedly demonstrated in Chan or Zen tradition. One is the legend of Bodhidharma, the Indian master who brought the Ekayana school of India to China that subsequently became Chan Buddhism.

The other is the passing of Chinese Chan master Puhua (J., Fuke) and is recounted in the Record of Linji (J., Rinzai). Puhua was known for his unusual behavior and teaching style so it is no wonder that he is associated with an event that breaks the usual prohibition on displaying such powers. Here is the account from Irmgard Schloegl's "The Zen Teaching of Rinzai".

 

"One day at the street market Fuke was begging all and sundry to give him a robe. Everybody offered him one, but he did not want any of them. The master [Linji] made the superior buy a coffin, and when Fuke returned, said to him: "There, I had this robe made for you." Fuke shouldered the coffin, and went back to the street market, calling loudly: "Rinzai had this robe made for me! I am off to the East Gate to enter transformation" (to die)." The people of the market crowded after him, eager to look. Fuke said: "No, not today. Tomorrow, I shall go to the South Gate to enter transformation." And so for three days. Nobody believed it any longer. On the fourth day, and now without any spectators, Fuke went alone outside the city walls, and laid himself into the coffin. He asked a traveler who chanced by to nail down the lid.

 

The news spread at once, and the people of the market rushed there. On opening the coffin, they found that the body had vanished, but from high up in the sky they heard the ring of his hand bell."

 

Technological resurrection

Cryonics is the low-temperature preservation of humans who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future. Cryonics procedures ideally begin within minutes of cardiac arrest, and use cryoprotectants to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation.

 

However, the idea of cryonics also includes preservation of people long after death because of the possibility that brain encoding memory structure and personality may still persist or be inferable in the future. Whether sufficient brain information still exists for cryonics to successfully preserve may be intrinsically unprovable by present knowledge. Therefore, most proponents of cryonics see it as an intervention with prospects for success that vary widely depending on circumstances.

 

Russian Cosmist Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov advocated resurrection of the dead using scientific methods. Fedorov tried to plan specific actions for scientific research of the possibility of restoring life and making it infinite. His first project is connected with collecting and synthesizing decayed remains of dead based on "knowledge and control over all atoms and molecules of the world".

 

The second method described by Fedorov is genetic-hereditary. The revival could be done successively in the ancestral line: sons and daughters restore their fathers and mothers, they in turn restore their parents and so on. This means restoring the ancestors using the hereditary information that they passed on to their children. Using this genetic method it is only possible to create a genetic twin of the dead person. It is necessary to give back the revived person his old mind, his personality. Fedorov speculates about the idea of "radial images" that may contain the personalities of the people and survive after death. Nevertheless, Fedorov noted that even if a soul is destroyed after death, Man will learn to restore it whole by mastering the forces of decay and fragmentation.

 

In his 1994 book The Physics of Immortality, American physicist Frank J. Tipler, an expert on the general theory of relativity, presented his Omega Point Theory which outlines how a resurrection of the dead could take place at the end of the cosmos. He posits that humans will evolve into robots which will turn the entire cosmos into a supercomputer which will, shortly before the big crunch, perform the resurrection within its cyberspace, reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the supercomputer from the past light cone of the cosmos) as avatars within its metaverse.

 

David Deutsch, British physicist and pioneer in the field of quantum computing, agrees with Tipler's Omega Point cosmology and the idea of resurrecting deceased people with the help of quantum computer but he is critical of Tipler's theological views.

 

Italian physicist and computer scientist Giulio Prisco presents the idea of "quantum archaeology", "reconstructing the life, thoughts, memories, and feelings of any person in the past, up to any desired level of detail, and thus resurrecting the original person via 'copying to the future'".

 

In his book Mind Children, roboticist Hans Moravec proposed that a future supercomputer might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, this information can be in the form of memories, filmstrips, medical records, and DNA.

 

Ray Kurzweil, American inventor and futurist, believes that when his concept of singularity comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation.

 

In their science fiction novel The Light of Other Days, Sir Arthur Clarke and Stephen Baxter imagine a future civilization resurrecting the dead of past ages by reaching into the past, through micro wormholes and with nanorobots, to download full snapshots of brain states and memories.

 

Both the Church of Perpetual Life and the Terasem Movement consider themselves transreligions and advocate for the use of technology to indefinitely extend the human lifespan.

 

Zombies

A zombie (Haitian Creole: zonbi; North Mbundu: nzumbe) can be either a fictional undead monster or a person in an entranced state believed to be controlled by a bokor or wizard. These latter are the original zombies, occurring in the West African Vodun religion and its American offshoots Haitian Vodou and New Orleans Voodoo.

 

Zombies became a popular device in modern horror fiction, largely because of the success of George A. Romero's 1968 film Night of the Living Dead and they have appeared as plot devices in various books, films and in television shows. Zombie fiction is now a sizable subgenre of horror, usually describing a breakdown of civilization occurring when most of the population become flesh-eating zombies – a zombie apocalypse. The monsters are usually hungry for human flesh, often specifically brains. Sometimes they are victims of a fictional pandemic illness causing the dead to reanimate or the living to behave this way, but often no cause is given in the story.

 

Disappearances (as distinct from resurrection)

As knowledge of different religions has grown, so have claims of bodily disappearance of some religious and mythological figures. In ancient Greek religion, this was a way the gods made some physically immortal, including such figures as Cleitus, Ganymede, Menelaus, and Tithonus. After his death, Cycnus was changed into a swan and vanished. In his chapter on Romulus from Parallel Lives, Plutarch criticises the continuous belief in such disappearances, referring to the allegedly miraculous disappearance of the historical figures Romulus, Cleomedes of Astypalaea, and Croesus. In ancient times, Greek and Roman pagan similarities were explained by the early Christian writers, such as Justin Martyr, as the work of demons, with the intention of leading Christians astray.

 

In somewhat recent years it has been learned that Gesar, the Savior of Tibet, at the end, chants on a mountain top and his clothes fall empty to the ground. The body of the first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev, is said to have disappeared and flowers were left in place of his dead body.

 

Lord Raglan's Hero Pattern lists many religious figures whose bodies disappear, or have more than one sepulchre. B. Traven, author of The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, wrote that the Inca Virococha arrived at Cusco (in modern-day Peru) and the Pacific seacoast where he walked across the water and vanished.[46] It has been thought that teachings regarding the purity and incorruptibility of the hero's human body are linked to this phenomenon. Perhaps, this is also to deter the practice of disturbing and collecting the hero's remains. They are safely protected if they have disappeared.

 

The first such case mentioned in the Bible is that of Enoch (son of Jared, great-grandfather of Noah, and father of Methuselah). Enoch is said to have lived a life where he "walked with God", after which "he was not, for God took him" (Genesis 5:1–18).

 

In Deuteronomy (34:6) Moses is secretly buried. Elijah vanishes in a whirlwind 2 Kings (2:11). After hundreds of years these two earlier Biblical heroes suddenly reappear, and are seen walking with Jesus, then again vanish. Mark (9:2–8), Matthew (17:1–8) and Luke (9:28–33). The last time he is seen, Luke (24:51) alone tells of Jesus leaving his disciples by ascending into the sky.

  

St Machar's Cathedral (or, more formally, the Cathedral Church of St Machar) is a Church of Scotland church in Aberdeen, Scotland. It is located to the north of the city centre, in the former burgh of Old Aberdeen. Technically, St Machar's is no longer a cathedral but rather a high kirk, as it has not been the seat of a bishopsince 1690.

 

St Machar is said to have been a companion of St Columba on his journey to Iona. A fourteenth-century legend tells how God (or St Columba) told Machar to establish a church where a river bends into the shape of a bishop's crosier before flowing into the sea.

 

The River Don bends in this way just below where the Cathedral now stands. According to legend, St Machar founded a site of worship in Old Aberdeen in about 580. Machar's church was superseded by a Norman cathedral in 1131, shortly after David I transferred the See from Mortlach to Aberdeen.

 

Almost nothing of that original cathedral survives; a lozenge-decorated base for a capital supporting one of the architraves can be seen in the Charter Room in the present church.

 

After the execution of William Wallace in 1305, his body was cut up and sent to different corners of the country to warn other dissenters. His left quarter ended up in Aberdeen and is buried in the walls of the cathedral.

 

At the end of the thirteenth century Bishop Henry Cheyne decided to extend the church, but the work was interrupted by the Scottish Wars of Independence. Cheyne's progress included piers for an extended choir at the transept crossing. These pillars, with decorated capitals of red sandstone, are still visible at the east end of the present church.

 

Though worn by exposure to the elements after the collapse of the cathedral's central tower, these capitals are among the finest stone carvings of their date to survive in Scotland.

 

Bishop Alexander Kininmund II demolished the Norman cathedral in the late 14th century, and began the nave, including the granite columns and the towers at the western end. Bishop Henry Lichtoun completed the nave, the west front and the northern transept, and made a start on the central tower.

 

Bishop Ingram Lindsay completed the roof and the paving stones in the later part of the fifteenth century. Further work was done over the next fifty years by Thomas Spens, William Elphinstone and Gavin Dunbar; Dunbar is responsible for the heraldic ceiling and the two western spires.

 

The chancel was demolished in 1560 during the Scottish Reformation. The bells and lead from the roof were sent to be sold in Holland, but the ship sank near Girdle Ness.

 

The central tower and spire collapsed in 1688, in a storm, and this destroyed the choir and transepts. The west arch of the crossing was then filled in, and worship carried on in the nave only; the current church consists only of the nave and aisles of the earlier building.

 

The ruined transepts and crossing are under the care of Historic Scotland, and contain an important group of late medieval bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies. The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite. On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the 16th Century) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of Scotland.

 

The Cathedral is a fine example of a fortified kirk, with twin towers built in the fashion of fourteenth-century tower houses. Their walls have the strength to hold spiral staircases to the upper floors and battlements. The spires which presently crown the

 

Though worn by exposure to the elements after the collapse of the cathedral's central tower, these capitals are among the finest stone carvings of their date to survive in Scotland.

 

Bishop Alexander Kininmund II demolished the Norman cathedral in the late 14th century, and began the nave, including the granite columns and the towers at the western end. Bishop Henry Lichtoun completed the nave, the west front and the northern transept, and made a start on the central tower.

 

Bishop Ingram Lindsay completed the roof and the paving stones in the later part of the fifteenth century. Further work was done over the next fifty years by Thomas Spens, William Elphinstone and Gavin Dunbar; Dunbar is responsible for the heraldic ceiling and the two western spires.

 

The chancel was demolished in 1560 during the Scottish Reformation. The bells and lead from the roof were sent to be sold in Holland, but the ship sank near Girdle Ness.

 

The central tower and spire collapsed in 1688, in a storm, and this destroyed the choir and transepts. The west arch of the crossing was then filled in, and worship carried on in the nave only; the current church consists only of the nave and aisles of the earlier building.

 

The ruined transepts and crossing are under the care of Historic Scotland, and contain an important group of late medieval bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies. The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite. On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the 16th Century) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of Scotland.

 

Bishops Gavin Dunbar and Alexander Galloway built the western towers and installed the heraldic ceiling, featuring 48 coats of arms in three rows of sixteen. Among those shown are:

* Pope Leo X's coat of arms in the centre, followed in order of importance by those of the Scottish archbishops and bishops.

* the Prior of St Andrews, representing other Church orders.

* King's College, the westernmost shield.

* Henry VIII of England, James V of Scotland and multiple instances for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who was also King of Spain, Aragon, Navarre and Sicily at the time the ceiling was created.

* St Margaret of Scotland, possibly as a stand-in for Margaret Tudor, James V's mother, whose own arms would have been the marshalled arms of England and Scotland.

* the arms of Aberdeen and of the families Gordon, Lindsay, Hay and Keith.

 

The ceiling is set off by a frieze which starts at the north-west corner of the nave and lists the bishops of the see from Nechtan in 1131 to William Gordon at the Reformation in 1560. This is followed by the Scottish monarchs from Máel Coluim II to Mary, Queen of Scots.

 

Notable figures buried in the cathedral cemetery include the author J.J. Bell, Robert Brough, Gavin Dunbar, Robert Laws, a missionary to Malawi and William Ogilvie of Pittensear—the ‘rebel professor’.

 

There has been considerable investment in recent years in restoration work and the improvement of the display of historic artefacts at the Cathedral.

 

The battlements of the western towers, incomplete for several centuries, have been renewed to their original height and design, greatly improving the appearance of the exterior. Meanwhile, within the building, a number of important stone monuments have been displayed to advantage.

 

These include a possibly 7th-8th century cross-slab from Seaton (the only surviving evidence from Aberdeen of Christianity at such an early date); a rare 12th century sanctuary cross-head; and several well-preserved late medieval effigies of Cathedral clergy, valuable for their detailed representation of contemporary dress.

 

A notable modern addition to the Cathedral's artistic treasures is a carved wooden triptych commemorating John Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen (d. 1395), author of The Brus.

Die Garnisonkirche (ehemals: Hof- und Garnisonkirche) war eine evangelische Kirche in der historischen Mitte von Potsdam, deren Turm von 2017 bis 2024 wiederaufgebaut wurde. Erbaut im Auftrag des preußischen Königs Friedrich Wilhelm I. nach Plänen des Architekten Philipp Gerlach in den Jahren 1730–1735, galt sie als ein Hauptwerk des norddeutschen Barocks. Mit einer Turmhöhe von fast 90 Metern war sie das höchste Bauwerk Potsdams und prägte im Dreikirchenblick zusammen mit der Nikolaikirche und der Heiliggeistkirche das Stadtbild. Gegen Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde sie 1945 durch einen britischen Luftangriff in der sogenannten Nacht von Potsdam schwer beschädigt und brannte aus. Die Regierung der DDR ließ die gesicherte Ruine 1968 sprengen, um auf einem Teil des Grundstücks das Rechenzentrum Potsdam zu errichten.

Anhänger eines Wiederaufbaus des Gotteshauses traten 2004 mit dem Ruf aus Potsdam an die Öffentlichkeit. In der Folge ihres Engagements wird seit 2017 die kontrovers debattierte Rekonstruktion als offene Stadtkirche und internationales Versöhnungszentrum betrieben. Am Ostermontag 2024 wurde im wiedererrichteten Kirchturm die neue Nagelkreuzkapelle eröffnet. Im August 2024 wurde eine Ausstellung zur Geschichte des Ortes und die Aussichtsplattform in 57 Meter Höhe eröffnet. Noch fehlt dem Turm die Haube, deren Bau aber noch 2025 neben dem Turm begonnen werden und die dann bis 2027 auf den Turm gehoben werden soll. Das Kirchenschiff wird vermutlich, anders als ursprünglich geplant, nicht wieder errichtet, stattdessen wird über ein Veranstaltungszentrum oder auch einen Saal für die Stadtverordnetenversammlung diskutiert. Der Kirchturm ist bereits jetzt der höchste Aussichtspunkt Posdam, die Aussichtsterrasse ist barrierefrei zu erreichen.

Der Wiederaufbau des Turms war stark umstritten, und ist es immer noch, vor allem wegen des sogenannten "Tags von Potsdam" 1933. Bei den Reichstagswahlen vom 5. März 1933, die in einem Klima von Rechtsunsicherheit und Gewalt stattfanden, erhofften sich die Nationalsozialisten die absolute Mehrheit der Stimmen. Damit sollte die Selbstauflösung des Parlaments durchgesetzt werden, um endgültig den Weg in die Diktatur beschreiten zu können. In der Folge des Reichstagsbrandes in der Nacht vom 27. auf den 28. Februar beschloss das Reichskabinett auf Vorschlag Hitlers, die Reichstagseröffnung nach Potsdam zu verlegen. Unter Bezug auf die erste Reichstagseröffnung 1871 durch Kaiser Wilhelm I. im Weißen Saal des Berliner Schlosses wurde der 21. März als Termin festgesetzt. Höhepunkt der Feierlichkeiten war ein Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche mit Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg, Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler, den Mitgliedern seiner Regierung und den Reichstagsabgeordneten mit Ausnahme der Abgeordneten der SPD und der KPD sowie geladenen Gäste aus dem öffentlichen Leben, der Wirtschaft und der Reichswehr. Damit ähnelte die Zusammenkunft dem Empfang der neuen Reichstagsabgeordneten beim Kaiser, wie es vor 1918 der Brauch gewesen war. Der stark von militärischen Traditionen geprägten Staatsakt in Potsdam mit Reden Hindenburgs und Hitlers und einer großen Militärparade wurde reichsweit im Radio live übertragen und von NS-Propagandaminister Joseph Goebbels als Tag von Potsdam inszeniert. Der Handschlag Hitlers und Hindenburgs vor der Garnisonkirche wurde fotografisch festgehalten und später von der NS-Propaganda zum symbolischen Händedruck stilisiert. Die Nazis, die ihre Macht noch nicht gefestigt sahen, sahen im Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche die Chance, eine Annäherung zwischen Hitler und Hindenburg zu inszenieren und die 1932 im Reichspräsidenten-Wahlkampf noch heftige Spaltung des Mitte-Rechts-Lagers, als überwunden darzustellen. Dieses geschichtliche Ereignis und die Interpretation der Kirche als Symbol des preußischen Militarismus waren vermutlich Hauptgrund für den Abriss der wiederaufbaufähigen Ruine im Jahr 1968 durch die DDR-Behörden gewesen.

  

Dieser Text beruht im Wesentlichen auf Wikipedia

 

The Garrison Church (formerly: Court and Garrison Church) was a Protestant church in the historic centre of Potsdam, whose tower was rebuilt from 2017 to 2024. Built by order of the Prussian King Frederick William I according to plans by the architect Philipp Gerlach between 1730 and 1735, it was considered a major work of North German Baroque architecture. With a tower height of almost 90 metres, it was the tallest building in Potsdam and, together with St. Nicholas' and Holy Spirit Churches, dominated the cityscape in what was known as the 'Three-Churches-View' Towards the end of the Second World War, it was badly damaged by a British air raid in 1945 during the so-called Night of Potsdam and burnt out. The GDR government had the secured ruins blown up in 1968 in order to build the Potsdam Computer Centre on part of the site.

Supporters of rebuilding the church went public with the “'Call from Potsdam”' in 2004. As a result of their commitment, the controversially debated reconstruction as an open city church and international reconciliation centre has been underway since 2017. On Easter Monday 2024, the new Chapel of the Cross of Nails was opened in the rebuilt church tower. In August 2024, an exhibition on the history of the site and the viewing platform at a height of 57 metres were opened. The tower is still missing its spire, but construction will begin next to the tower in 2025 and the spire is due to be raised by 2027. The nave of the church will probably not be rebuilt as originally planned, instead there are discussions about an event centre or a hall for the town council meeting. The church tower is already the highest vantage point in Posdam, and the viewing terrace can be reached barrier-free.

The reconstruction of the tower was, and still is, highly controversial, mainly due to the so-called “Day of Potsdam” in 1933. The Nazis hoped to gain an absolute majority of votes in the Reichstag elections of 5 March 1933, which took place in a climate of legal uncertainty and violence. This was intended to force through the self-dissolution of parliament so that they could finally embark on the path to dictatorship. Following the Reichstag fire on the night of 27/28 February, the Reich Cabinet decided, at Hitler's suggestion, to move the opening of the Reichstag to Potsdam. With reference to the first Reichstag opening in 1871 by Emperor Wilhelm I in the White Hall of the Berlin Palace, 21 March was set as the date. The highlight of the celebrations was a state ceremony in the Garrison Church with Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler, the members of his government and the Reichstag deputies, with the exception of the SPD and KPD deputies, as well as invited guests from public life, business and the armed forces. The gathering thus resembled the reception of the new Reichstag deputies by the Kaiser, as had been the custom before 1918. The state ceremony in Potsdam, which was strongly characterised by military traditions, with speeches by Hindenburg and Hitler and a large military parade, was broadcast live on the radio throughout the Reich and staged by Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels as the Day of Potsdam. Hitler and Hindenburg's handshake in front of the Garrison Church was photographed and later stylised by Nazi propaganda as a symbolic handshake. The Nazis, who did not yet see their power consolidated, saw the act of state in the Garrison Church as an opportunity to stage a rapprochement between Hitler and Hindenburg and to present the still fierce division of the centre-right in the 1932 presidential election campaign as having been overcome. This historical event and the interpretation of the church as a symbol of Prussian militarism were probably the main reasons for the demolition of the rebuildable ruins in 1968 by the GDR authorities.

 

This text is mainly based on Wikipedia

   

The Postcard

 

A postally unused carte postale published by F. Chapeau of Nantes.

 

Although the card was not posted, someone has written a date on the back:

 

"5. 12. 32".

 

Le Château des Ducs de Bretagne

 

Le Château des Ducs de Bretagne is a large castle located in the city of Nantes in the Loire-Atlantique département of France.

 

It is located on the right bank of the Loire, which formerly fed its ditches. It was the residence of the Dukes of Brittany between the 13th. and 16th. centuries, subsequently becoming the Breton residence of the French Monarchy.

 

The castle has been listed as a Monument Historique by the French Ministry of Culture since 1862.

 

Restoration of the Château

 

Starting in the 1990's, the town of Nantes undertook a massive programme of restoration and repairs to return the site to its former glory as an emblem of the history of Nantes and Brittany.

 

Following 15 years of works and three years of closure to the public, it was reopened on the 9th. February 2007, and is now a popular tourist attraction. Night-time illuminations at the castle further reinforce the revival of the château.

 

The restored edifice now includes the new Nantes History Museum, installed in 32 of the castle rooms. The museum presents more than 850 objects of interest with the aid of multimedia devices.

 

The château and its museum try to offer a modern vision of the heritage by presenting the past, the present and the future of the city.

 

The 500-metre round walk on the fortified ramparts provides views not just of the castle buildings and courtyards but also of the town.

 

The Sale of Liquor

 

So what else happened on Monday the 5th. December 1932?

 

Well, on that day, a joint resolution was introduced to the U.S. Congress repealing the Eighteenth Amendment, and turning the regulation of liquor over to the individual states.

 

British War Debts

 

Also on that day, the British government suggested issuing bonds to cover its war debts to the United States.

 

'Jane'

 

Also on that day, the comic strip 'Jane' by Norman Pett first appeared in the British tabloid newspaper the Daily Mirror.

 

Little Richard

 

The 5th. December 1932 also marked the birth, in Macon, Georgia, of Little Richard.

 

Richard Wayne Penniman, known professionally as Little Richard, was an American musician, singer, and songwriter. He was an influential figure in popular music and culture for seven decades.

 

Described as the "Architect of Rock and Roll", Richard's most celebrated work dates from the mid-1950's, when his charismatic showmanship and dynamic music, characterized by frenetic piano playing, pounding back beat and raspy shouted vocals, laid the foundation for rock and roll.

 

Richard's innovative emotive vocalizations and uptempo rhythmic music also played a key role in the formation of other popular music genres, including soul and funk.

 

He influenced numerous singers and musicians across musical genres from rock to hip hop, and his music helped shape rhythm and blues for generations.

 

"Tutti Frutti" (1955), one of Richard's signature songs, became an instant hit, crossing over to the pop charts in both the United States and the United Kingdom. His next hit single, "Long Tall Sally" (1956), hit No. 1 on the Billboard Rhythm and Blues Best-Sellers chart, followed by a rapid succession of fifteen more hits in less than three years.

 

Richard's performances during this period resulted in integration between the white Americans and black Americans in his audience.

 

In 1962, after a five-year period during which Richard abandoned rock and roll music for born again Christianity, concert promoter Don Arden persuaded him to tour Europe.

 

During this time, the Beatles opened for Richard on some tour dates. Richard advised the Beatles on how to perform his songs, and taught Paul McCartney his distinctive vocalizations.

 

Richard is cited as one of the first crossover black artists, reaching audiences of all races. His music and concerts broke the color line, drawing black and white people together despite attempts to sustain segregation.

 

Many of his contemporaries, including Elvis Presley, Buddy Holly, Bill Haley, Jerry Lee Lewis, the Everly Brothers, Gene Vincent and Eddie Cochran, recorded covers of his works.

 

Impressed by Richard's music and style, and personally covering four of Richard's songs on his own two breakthrough albums in 1956, Presley told Richard in 1969 that his music was an inspiration to him, and that he was "the greatest".

 

Richard was honored by many institutions. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as part of its first group of inductees in 1986. He was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.

 

Richard was the recipient of Lifetime Achievement Awards from The Recording Academy and the Rhythm and Blues Foundation.

 

In 2015, Richard received a Rhapsody & Rhythm Award from the National Museum of African American Music for his key role in the formation of popular music genres, and for helping to bring an end to the racial divide on the music charts and in concerts in the mid-1950's.

 

"Tutti Frutti" was included in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2010, which stated that:

 

"Richard's unique vocalizing over the

irresistible beat announced a new era

in music".

 

Little Richard - The Early Years

 

Richard Wayne Penniman was the third of twelve children of Leva Mae (née Stewart) and Charles "Bud" Penniman. His father was a church deacon and a brick mason, who sold bootlegged moonshine on the side, and who also owned a nightclub called the Tip In Inn. Richard's mother was a member of Macon's New Hope Baptist Church.

 

Initially, his first name was supposed to have been "Ricardo", but an error resulted in "Richard" instead. In childhood, he was nicknamed "Lil' Richard" by his family because of his small and skinny frame.

 

The Penniman children were raised in a neighborhood of Macon called Pleasant Hill. A mischievous child who played pranks on neighbors, he began singing in church and taking piano lessons at a young age.

 

Possibly as a result of complications at birth, Richard had a slight deformity that left one of his legs shorter than the other. This produced an unusual gait, and he was mocked for his allegedly effeminate appearance.

 

Richard's family were very religious, and joined various A.M.E., Baptist, and Pentecostal churches, with some family members becoming ministers. He enjoyed the Pentecostal churches the most, because of their charismatic worship and live music.

 

Richard later recalled that people in his neighborhood sang gospel songs throughout the day during segregation to keep a positive outlook, because:

 

"There was so much poverty, so

much prejudice in those days".

 

He had observed that:

 

"People sing to feel their connection

with God, and to wash their trials and

burdens away."

 

Gifted with a loud singing voice, he recalled that:

 

"I was always changing the key upwards,

and I was once stopped from singing in

church for screaming and hollering so loud.

My singing gave me the nickname "War Hawk".

 

Richard recalled that:

 

"As a child, I would beat on the steps

of the house, and on tin cans and pots

and pans, or whatever, while I was

singing, and this used to annoy the

neighbors."

 

Richard's initial musical influences were gospel performers such as Brother Joe May, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Mahalia Jackson, and Marion Williams.

 

Joe May, a singing evangelist who was known as "The Thunderbolt of the Middle West" because of his phenomenal range and vocal power, inspired Richard to become a preacher. He credited the Clara Ward Singers for one of his distinctive hollers.

 

Richard attended Macon's Hudson High School, where he was a below-average student. He eventually learned to play alto saxophone, joining the school's marching band while in fifth grade.

 

While still in high school, Richard got a part-time job at Macon City Auditorium for local secular and gospel concert promoter Clint Brantley. He sold Coca-Cola to crowds during concerts of star performers of the day such as Cab Calloway, Lucky Millinder, and his favorite singer Sister Rosetta Tharpe.

 

Little Richard's Music Career

 

(a) 1947–1955: Beginnings

 

In October 1947, Sister Rosetta Tharpe overheard the fourteen-year-old Richard singing her songs before a performance at the Macon City Auditorium, and she invited him to open her show.

 

After the show, Tharpe paid Richard, inspiring him to become a professional performer. Richard stated that his piano style was greatly influenced by Ike Turner's piano intro on "Rocket 88".

 

In 1949, Richard began performing in Doctor Nubillo's traveling show. He was inspired to wear turbans and capes in his career by Nubillo, who also:

 

"Carried a black stick and exhibited

something he called 'the devil's child'—

supposedly the dried-up body of a

baby, with claw feet like a bird, and

horns on its head."

 

Nubillo told Richard:

 

"You're gonna be famous, but you'll

have to go where the grass is greener".

 

Before entering the tenth grade, Richard left his family home and joined Hudson's Medicine Show in 1949, performing Louis Jordan's "Caldonia". Richard recalled that the song was the first secular R&B song he learned, since his family had strict rules against playing R&B music, which they considered "devil music".

 

Little Richard was influenced by Jordan. In fact, the whoop sound on Jordan's record "Caldonia" sounds eerily like the vocal tone Little Richard adopted, in addition to the "Jordan-style pencil-thin mustache".

 

Richard also performed in drag during this time, performing under the name "Princess LaVonne".

 

In 1950, Richard joined his first musical band, Buster Brown's Orchestra, where Brown gave him the name Little Richard. Performing in the minstrel show circuit, Richard, in and out of drag, performed for various vaudeville acts such as Sugarfoot Sam from Alabam, the Tidy Jolly Steppers, the King Brothers Circus, and Broadway Follies.

 

Having settled in Atlanta at this point, Richard began listening to rhythm and blues, and frequented Atlanta clubs, including the Harlem Theater and the Royal Peacock, where he saw performers such as Roy Brown and Billy Wright onstage.

 

Richard was further influenced by Brown's and Wright's flashy style of showmanship, and was even more influenced by Wright's flamboyant persona. Inspired by Brown and Wright, he decided to become a rhythm-and-blues singer, and after befriending Wright, began to learn how to be an entertainer from him.

 

Richard began to sport a pompadour hairdo similar to Wright's, as well as a pencil mustache, using Wright's brand of facial pancake makeup and wearing flashier clothes.

 

Impressed by his singing voice, Wright put him in contact with Zenas Sears, a local D. J. Sears recorded Richard at his station, backed by Wright's band. The recordings led to a contract that year with RCA Victor. Richard recorded a total of eight sides for RCA Victor, including the blues ballad, "Every Hour", which became his first single, and a hit in Georgia.

 

The release of "Every Hour" improved his relationship with his father, who began regularly playing the song on his nightclub jukebox. Shortly after the release of "Every Hour", Richard was hired to front Perry Welch and His Orchestra, and played at clubs and army bases for $100 a week.

 

Richard left RCA Victor in February 1952 after his records for the label failed to chart; the recordings were marketed with little promotion from RCA Victor, although ads for the records showed up in Billboard Magazine.

 

After his father´s death in 1952, Richard began to find success, RCA Victor re-issued the recordings on the budget RCA Camden label. He continued to perform during this time, and Clint Brantley agreed to manage Richard's career.

 

Moving to Houston, he formed a band called the Tempo Toppers, performing as part of blues package tours in Southern clubs such as Club Tijuana in New Orleans, and Club Matinee in Houston.

 

Richard signed with Don Robey's Peacock Records in February 1953, recording eight sides, including four with Johnny Otis and his band that were unreleased at the time. Like Richard's venture with RCA Victor, none of his Peacock singles charted, despite Richard getting knocked out by Robey during a scuffle.

 

Disillusioned by the record business, Richard returned to Macon in 1954. Struggling with poverty, he settled for work as a dishwasher for Greyhound Lines.

 

While in Macon, he met Esquerita, whose flamboyant onstage persona and dynamic piano playing deeply influenced Richard's approach to performance. That year, he disbanded the Tempo Toppers, and formed a harder-driving rhythm and blues band, the Upsetters, which included drummer Charles Connor and saxophonist Wilbert "Lee Diamond" Smith.

 

In 1954, Richard signed on to a Southern tour with Little Johnny Taylor. The band supported R&B singer Christine Kittrell on some recordings, then began to tour successfully, even without a bass guitarist, forcing drummer Connor to thump "real hard" on his bass drum in order to get a "bass fiddle effect". Around this time, Richard signed a contract to tour with fellow R&B singer Little Johnny Taylor.

 

At the suggestion of Lloyd Price, Richard sent a demo to Price's label, Specialty Records, in February 1955. Months passed before Richard got a call from the label. Finally, in September of that year, Specialty owner Art Rupe loaned Richard money to buy out of his Peacock contract, and set him to work with producer Robert "Bumps" Blackwell.

 

Upon hearing the demo, Blackwell felt that Richard was Specialty's answer to Ray Charles. However, Richard told him that he preferred the sound of Fats Domino. Blackwell sent him to New Orleans, where he recorded at Cosimo Matassa's J&M Studios, recording there with several of Domino's session musicians, including drummer Earl Palmer and saxophonist Lee Allen.

 

Richard's recordings that day failed to produce much inspiration or interest (although Blackwell saw some promise). Frustrated, Blackwell and Richard went to relax at the Dew Drop Inn nightclub. According to Blackwell, Richard then launched into a risqué dirty blues he titled "Tutti Frutti".

 

Blackwell felt that the song had hit potential, and hired songwriter Dorothy LaBostrie to replace some of Richard's sexual lyrics with less controversial ones. He also changed the microphone placement, and pushed Richard's voice forward.

 

Recorded in three takes in September 1955, "Tutti Frutti" was released as a single that November, and became an instant hit, reaching No. 2 on Billboard magazine's Rhythm and Blues Best-Sellers chart and crossing over to the pop charts in both the United States and the United Kingdom. It reached No. 21 on the Billboard Top 100 in America, and No. 29 on the British singles chart, eventually selling a million copies.

 

(b) 1956–1962: Initial Success and Conversion

 

Richard's next hit single, "Long Tall Sally" (1956), hit number one on the R&B chart and number thirteen on the Top 100 while reaching the top ten in Great Britain. Like "Tutti Frutti", it sold over a million copies.

 

Following his success, Richard built up his backup band, The Upsetters, with the addition of saxophonists Clifford "Gene" Burks and leader Grady Gaines, bassist Olsie "Baysee" Robinson and guitarist Nathaniel "Buster" Douglas.

 

Richard began performing on package tours across the United States. Art Rupe described the differences between Richard and a similar hitmaker of the early rock and roll period by stating that:

 

"While the similarities between Little Richard

and Fats Domino for recording purposes were

close, Richard would sometimes stand up at

the piano while he was recording and onstage,

whereas Domino was plodding, and very slow,

Richard was very dynamic, completely uninhibited,

unpredictable, and wild. So the band took on

the ambience of the vocalist."

 

Richard's performances, like most early rock and roll shows, resulted in integrated audience reaction during an era where public places were divided into "white" and "colored" domains. In these package tours, Richard and other artists such as Fats Domino and Chuck Berry would enable audiences of both races to enter the building, albeit still segregated (e.g. blacks on the balcony and whites on the main floor).

 

As his later Producer H. B. Barnum, explained, Richard's performances enabled audiences to come together to dance. Despite broadcasts on television from local supremacist groups such as the North Alabama White Citizens Council warning that rock and roll "brings the races together", Richard's popularity was helping to shatter the myth that black performers could not successfully perform at "white-only venues", especially in the South where racism was most overt.

 

Richard's high-energy antics included lifting his leg while playing the piano, climbing on top of his piano, running on and off the stage and throwing souvenirs to the audience. He also began using capes and suits studded with multi-colored stones and sequins. Richard said he began to be more flamboyant onstage so that no one would think he was "after the white girls".

 

Little Richard recalled:

 

"A lot of songs I sang to crowds first

to watch their reaction. That's how I

knew they'd hit."

 

Richard claims that a show at Baltimore's Royal Theatre in June 1956 led to some women throwing their panties onstage at him, resulting in other female fans repeating the action, saying that it was "the first time" that had happened to any artist.

 

Richard's show stopped several times that night due to fans being restrained from jumping off the balcony and then rushing to the stage to touch him.

 

Overall, Richard produced seven singles in the United States alone in 1956, with five of them also charting in the UK, including "Slippin' and Slidin'", "Rip It Up", "Ready Teddy", "The Girl Can't Help It" and "Lucille".

 

Immediately after releasing "Tutti Frutti", which was then protocol for the industry, "safer" white recording artists such as Pat Boone covered the song, sending the song to the top twenty of the charts, several positions higher than Richard's.

 

His fellow rock and roll peers Elvis Presley and Bill Haley also recorded his songs later that same year. Befriending Alan Freed, Richard was given a role in "rock and roll" movies such as Don't Knock the Rock, and Mister Rock and Roll.

 

Richard was given a larger singing role in the 1956 film, The Girl Can't Help It starring Jayne Mansfield. That year, he scored more hit successes with songs such as "Jenny, Jenny" and "Keep A-Knockin,'" the latter becoming his first top ten single on the Billboard Top 100.

 

By the time he left Specialty in 1959, Richard had scored a total of nine top 40 pop singles and seventeen top 40 R&B singles.

 

Richard performed at the famed twelfth Cavalcade of Jazz held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles on the 2nd. September 1956.

 

Also performing that day were Dinah Washington, The Mel Williams Dots, Chuck Higgins' Orchestra, Bo Rhambo, Willie Hayden & Five Black Birds, The Premiers, Gerald Wilson and his 20-Piece Recording Orchestra, and Jerry Gray and his Orchestra.

 

Shortly after the release of "Tutti Frutti", Richard relocated to Los Angeles. After achieving success as a recording artist and live performer, Richard moved into a wealthy, formerly predominantly white neighborhood, living close to black celebrities such as boxer Joe Louis.

 

Richard's first album, Here's Little Richard, was released by Specialty in March 1957, and peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Top LPs chart. Similar to most albums released during that era, the album featured six released singles and a number of "filler" tracks.

 

In October 1957, Richard embarked on a package tour in Australia with Gene Vincent and Eddie Cochran. During the middle of the tour, he shocked the public by announcing that he intended to follow a life in the ministry.

 

Richard claimed in his autobiography that during a flight from Melbourne to Sydney, his plane was experiencing some difficulty, and he claimed to have seen the plane's red hot engines, and felt that angels were "holding it up".

 

At the end of his Sydney performance, Richard saw a bright red fireball flying across the sky above him, and claimed that he was "deeply shaken". Though he was eventually told that it was the launching of the first artificial Earth satellite Sputnik 1, Richard took it as a "sign from God" to repent from performing secular music and his wild lifestyle at the time.

 

Returning to the States ten days earlier than expected, Richard later read that the flight he had originally planned to take had crashed into the Pacific Ocean, He regarded this as a further sign to "do as God wanted".

 

After a "farewell performance" at the Apollo Theater and a "final" recording session with Specialty later that month, Richard enrolled at Oakwood College in Huntsville, Alabama, to study theology.

 

Despite his claims of spiritual rebirth, Richard admitted his reasons for leaving were more monetary. During his tenure at Specialty, despite earning millions for the label, Richard complained that he was unaware that Speciality had reduced the percentage of royalties he was to earn from his recordings.

 

In early 1958, Specialty released Richard's second album, Little Richard, which didn't chart.

 

Specialty continued to release Richard's recordings, including "Good Golly, Miss Molly" and his unique version of "Kansas City", until 1960. Finally ending his contract with the label, Richard agreed to relinquish any royalties for his material.

 

In 1958, Richard formed the Little Richard Evangelistic Team, traveling across the country to preach. A month after his decision to leave secular music, Richard met Ernestine Harvin, a secretary from Washington, D.C., and the couple married on the 11th. July 1959.

 

Richard ventured into gospel music, first recording for End Records, before signing with Mercury Records in 1961, where he eventually released King of the Gospel Singers, in 1962, produced by Quincy Jones, who later remarked that Richard's vocals impressed him more than any other vocalist that he had worked with.

 

Richard's childhood heroine, Mahalia Jackson, wrote in the notes of the album that:

 

"Richard sings gospel the

way it should be sung".

 

While Richard was no longer charting in the U.S. with pop music, some of his gospel songs such as "He's Not Just a Soldier" and "He Got What He Wanted", and "Crying in the Chapel", reached the pop charts in the U.S. and in the UK.

 

(c) 1962–1979: Return to Secular Music

 

Mick Jagger said of Richard:

 

"I heard so much about the audience

reaction, I thought there must be some

exaggeration. But it was all true.

He drove the whole house into a

complete frenzy ... I couldn't believe

the power of Little Richard onstage.

He was amazing."

 

In 1962, concert promoter Don Arden persuaded Little Richard to tour Europe after telling him his records were still selling well there.

 

With soul singer Sam Cooke as an opening act, Richard, who featured a teenage Billy Preston in his gospel band, figured it was a gospel tour and, after Cooke's delayed arrival forced him to cancel his show on the opening date, performed only gospel material during the show. This led to boos from the audience, who were expecting Richard to sing his rock and roll hits.

 

The following night, Richard viewed Cooke's well-received performance. Bringing back his competitive drive, Richard and Preston warmed up in darkness before launching into "Long Tall Sally", resulting in frenetic, hysterical responses from the audience.

 

A show at Mansfield's Granada Theatre ended early after fans rushed the stage. Hearing of Richard's shows, Brian Epstein, manager of the Beatles, asked Don Arden to allow his band to open for Richard on some tour dates, to which he agreed.

 

The first show for which the Beatles opened was at New Brighton's Tower Ballroom that October. The following month they, along with Swedish singer Jerry Williams and his band The Violents, opened for Richard at the Star-Club in Hamburg.

 

During this time, Richard advised the group on how to perform his songs, and taught Paul McCartney his distinctive vocalizations.

 

Back in the United States, Richard recorded six rock and roll songs with his 1950's band, the Upsetters for Little Star Records, under the name "World Famous Upsetters", hoping this would keep his options open in maintaining his position as a minister.

 

In the fall of 1963, Richard was called by a concert promoter to rescue a sagging tour featuring The Everly Brothers, Bo Diddley and the Rolling Stones. Richard agreed, and helped to save the tour from flopping.

 

At the end of that tour, Richard was given his own television special for Granada Television titled The Little Richard Spectacular. The special became a ratings hit, and after 60,000 fan letters, was rebroadcast twice.

 

In 1964, now openly re-embracing rock and roll, Richard released "Bama Lama Bama Loo" on Specialty Records. Due to his UK exposure, the song reached the top twenty there, but only climbed to number 82 in the U.S.

 

Later in the year, he signed with Vee-Jay Records, then on its dying legs, to release his "comeback" album, Little Richard Is Back. Due to the arrival of the Beatles and other British bands as well as the rise of soul labels such as Motown and Stax Records and the popularity of James Brown, Richard's new releases were not well promoted, nor well received by radio stations.

 

In November 1964, Jimi Hendrix joined Richard's Upsetters band as a full member.

 

In December 1964, Richard brought Hendrix and childhood friend and piano teacher Eskew Reeder to a New York studio to re-record an album's worth of his greatest hits. He went on tour with his new group the Upsetters to promote the album.

 

In early 1965, Richard took Hendrix and Billy Preston to a New York studio where they recorded the Don Covay soul ballad, "I Don't Know What You've Got (But It's Got Me)", which became a number 12 R&B hit.

 

Three other songs were recorded during the sessions, "Dance a Go Go" aka "Dancin' All Around the World", "You Better Stop", and "Come See About Me." However "You Better Stop" was not issued until 1971, and "Come See About Me" has yet to see official release.

 

Around this time, Richard and Jimi appeared in a show starring Soupy Sales at the Brooklyn Paramount, New York. Richard's flamboyance and drive for dominance reportedly got him thrown off the show.

 

Hendrix and Richard clashed over the spotlight, as well as Hendrix's tardiness, wardrobe and stage antics. Hendrix also complained over not being properly paid by Richard. In early July 1965, Richard's brother Robert Penniman "fired" Jimi. However, Jimi wrote to his father, Al Hendrix, that he quit Richard because:

 

"You can't live on promises when

you're on the road, so I had to cut

that mess aloose".

 

Hendrix had not been paid for five-and-a-half weeks, and was owed 1,000 dollars. Hendrix then rejoined the Isley Brothers' band, the IB Specials.

 

Richard later signed with Modern Records, releasing a modest charter, "Do You Feel It?" before leaving for Okeh Records in early 1966.

 

His former Specialty labelmate Larry Williams produced two albums for Richard on Okeh - the studio release The Explosive Little Richard, which utilised a Motown-influenced sound and produced the modest charters "Poor Dog" and "Commandments of Love." Secondly Little Richard's Greatest Hits: Recorded Live! which returned him to the album charts.

 

Richard was later scathing about this period, declaring Larry Williams "the worst producer in the world". In 1967, Richard signed with Brunswick Records, but after clashing with the label over musical direction, he left the label the following year.

 

Richard felt that producers on his labels failed to promote his records during this period. Later, he claimed they kept trying to push him to record in a style similar to Motown, and felt he wasn't treated with appropriate respect.

 

Richard often performed in dingy clubs and lounges with little support from his label. While Richard managed to perform at huge venues in England and France, in the U.S. Richard had to perform on the Chitlin' Circuit.

 

Richard's flamboyant look, while a hit during the 1950's, failed to help his labels to promote him to more conservative black record buyers. Richard later claimed that his decision to "backslide" from his ministry, led religious clergymen to criticise his new recordings.

 

Making matters worse, Richard said, was his insistence on performing in front of integrated audiences at the time of the black liberation movement shortly after the Watts riots and the formation of the Black Panthers. This caused many black radio disk jockeys in certain areas of the country, including Los Angeles, to choose not to play his music.

 

By then acting as his manager, Larry Williams convinced Richard to focus on his live shows. By 1968, he had ditched the Upsetters for his new backup band, the Crown Jewels, performing on the Canadian TV show, "Where It's At".

 

Richard was also featured on the Monkees' TV special 33⅓ Revolutions per Monkee in April 1969.

 

Williams booked Richard shows in Las Vegas casinos and resorts, leading Richard to adopt a wilder, flamboyant, and androgynous look, inspired by the success of his former backing guitarist Jimi Hendrix.

 

Richard was soon booked at rock festivals such as the Atlantic City Pop Festival, where he stole the show from headliner Janis Joplin. Richard produced a similar show stealer at the Toronto Pop Festival with John Lennon as the headliner.

 

These successes brought Little Richard to talk shows such as the Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, and the Dick Cavett Show, making him a major celebrity again.

 

Responding to his reputation as a successful concert performer, Reprise Records signed Richard in 1970, and he released the album, The Rill Thing, with the philosophical single, "Freedom Blues", becoming his biggest charted single in years.

 

In May 1970, Richard made the cover of Rolling Stone magazine. Despite the success of "Freedom Blues", none of Richard's other Reprise singles charted, with the exception of "Greenwood, Mississippi", a swamp rock original by guitar hero, Travis Wammack, who incidentally played on the track.

 

It charted only briefly on the Billboard Hot 100 and Cash Box pop chart, also on the Billboard Country charts; it made a strong showing on WWRL in New York, before disappearing.

 

Richard became a featured guest instrumentalist and vocalist on recordings by acts such as Delaney and Bonnie, Joey Covington and Joe Walsh, and was prominently featured on Canned Heat's 1972 hit single, "Rockin' with the King".

 

To keep up with his finances and bookings, Richard and three of his brothers formed a management company, Bud Hole Incorporated. On American TV, Richard announced that he would appear in a Rock Hudson motion picture, playing "The Insane Minister". (The appearance has never seen the light of day.)

 

Richard also mentioned a new project involving Mick Jagger and Joe Cocker, celebrating his 20 years in show business, though it was never realized.

 

By 1972, Richard had entered the rock and roll revival circuit, and that year, he co-headlined the London Rock and Roll Show at Wembley Stadium with his musical peer Chuck Berry, Richard would come on stage and announce himself as "The King of Rock and Roll", fittingly also the title of his 1971 album with Reprise, and told the packed audience there to "let it all hang out".

 

Richard, however, was booed during the show when he climbed on top of his piano and stopped singing; he also seemed to ignore much of the crowd. To make matters worse, he showed up with just five musicians, and struggled through low lighting and bad microphones.

 

When the concert film documenting the show came out, his performance was considered generally strong, though his fans noticed a drop in energy and vocal artistry. Two songs he performed did not make the final cut of the film.

 

The following year, he recorded a charting soul ballad, "In the Middle of the Night", released with proceeds donated to victims of tornadoes that had caused damage in twelve states.

 

Richard did no new recordings in 1974, although two "new" albums were released. In the summer, came a major surprise for fans, "Talkin' 'bout Soul", a collection of released and unreleased Vee Jay recordings, all never before on a domestic LP. Two tracks were new to the world: the title tune and "You'd Better Stop", both uptempo.

 

Later that year came a set recorded in one night, early the previous year, called "Right Now!", and featuring "roots" material, including a vocal version of an unreleased Reprise instrumental "Mississippi", released in 1972 as "Funky Dish Rag"; his third try at his gospel-rock "In the Name"; and a 6 minute plus rocker, "Hot Nuts", based upon a 1936 song by Li'l Johnson ("Get 'Em From The Peanut Man").

 

1975 was a big year for Richard, with a world tour, and acclaim over high energy performances throughout England and France. His band was perhaps his best to date. He cut a top 40 single (US and Canada), with Bachman-Turner Overdrive, "Take It Like a Man".

 

Richard worked on new songs with sideman, Seabrun "Candy" Hunter. He told Dee-Jay, Wolfman Jack, that he planned on releasing a new album with Sly Stone, but it never materialized.

 

In 1976, he decided to retire again, being physically and mentally exhausted, having experienced family tragedy and the drug culture. He was talked into once again re-cutting his greatest hits, for Stan Shulman in Nashville. This time, they did not use new arrangements, but stuck to the original arrangements.

 

Richard re-recorded eighteen of his classic rock and roll hits for K-Tel Records, in high-tech stereo recreations, with a single featuring the new versions of "Good Golly Miss Molly" and "Rip It Up," with both tracks reaching the UK singles chart.

 

Richard later admitted that he was heavily addicted to drugs and alcohol. By 1977, worn out from years of drug abuse and wild partying, as well as a string of personal tragedies, Richard quit rock and roll again and returned to evangelism, releasing one gospel album, God's Beautiful City, in 1979.

 

At the same time, while touring once again as a minister and returning to talk shows, a controversial album was released by the discount label, Koala, taken from a 1974 concert.

 

It includes an 11 minute discordant version of "Good Golly, Miss Molly". The performances are widely panned as subpar, and the album has gained some notoriety amongst record collectors.

 

(d) 1984–1999: Comeback

 

In 1984, Richard filed a $112 million lawsuit against Specialty Records, Art Rupe and his publishing company, Venice Music, and ATV Music for not paying royalties to him after he left the label in 1959. The suit was settled out of court in 1986.

 

According to some reports, Michael Jackson allegedly gave him monetary compensation for his work, which he co-owned with Sony-ATV, songs by the Beatles and Richard.

 

In September 1984, Charles White released the singer's authorized biography, Quasar of Rock: The Life and Times of Little Richard, which put Richard back in the spotlight. Richard returned to show business in what Rolling Stone referred to as "a formidable comeback" following the book's release.

 

Reconciling his roles as evangelist and rock and roll musician for the first time, Richard stated that the genre could be used for good or evil. After accepting a role in the film Down and Out in Beverly Hills, Richard and Billy Preston penned the faith-based rock and roll song "Great Gosh A'Mighty" for its soundtrack.

 

Richard won critical acclaim for his film role, and the song found success in the American and British charts. The hit led to the release of the album Lifetime Friend (1986) on Warner Bros. Records, with songs deemed "messages in rhythm", including a gospel rap track.

 

In addition to a version of "Great Gosh A'Mighty", cut in England, the album featured two singles that charted in the UK, "Somebody's Comin,'" and "Operator".

 

Richard spent much of the rest of the decade as a guest on television shows and appearing in films, winning new fans with what was referred to as his "unique comedic timing."

 

In 1988, he surprised fans with a serious tribute to Otis Redding at his Rock and Roll of Fame induction ceremony, singing several Redding songs, including "Fa Fa Fa (sad song)", "These arms of mine", and "Dock of the Bay ".

 

He told Otis' story, and explained how his 1956 tune "All Around the World" was Redding's reference on his 1963 side, "Hey, Hey Baby".

 

In 1989, Richard provided rhythmic preaching and background vocals on the extended live version of the U2–B.B. King hit "When Love Comes to Town". That same year, Richard returned to singing his classic hits following a performance of "Lucille" at an AIDS benefit concert.

 

In 1990, Richard contributed a spoken-word rap on Living Colour's hit song, "Elvis Is Dead", from their album Time's Up. That same year he appeared in a cameo for the music video of Cinderella's "Shelter Me".

 

In 1991, he was one of the featured performers on the hit single and video "Voices That Care" that was produced to help boost the morale of U.S. troops involved in Operation Desert Storm.

 

The same year, he recorded a version of "The Itsy Bitsy Spider" for the Pediatric AIDS Foundation benefit album For Our Children. The album's success led to a deal with Walt Disney Records, resulting in the release of a hit 1992 children's album, Shake It All About.

 

In 1994, Richard sang the theme song to the award-winning PBS Kids and TLC animated television series The Magic School Bus based on the book series created by Joanna Cole and Bruce Degen. He also opened Wrestlemania X from Madison Square Garden on the 20th. March that year, miming to his reworked rendition of "America the Beautiful".

 

Throughout the 1990's, Richard performed around the world and appeared on TV, film, and tracks with other artists, including Jon Bon Jovi, Elton John and Solomon Burke.

 

In 1992 he released his final album, Little Richard Meets Masayoshi Takanaka, featuring members of Richard's then current touring band.

 

(e) 2000–2020: The Later years

 

In 2000, Richard's life was dramatized for the biographical film Little Richard, which focused on his early years, including his heyday, his religious conversion and his return to secular music in the early 1960's.

 

Richard was played by Leon Robinson, who earned an NAACP Image Award nomination for his performance.

 

In 2002, Richard contributed to the Johnny Cash tribute album, Kindred Spirits: A Tribute to the Songs of Johnny Cash. In 2004–2005, he released two sets of unreleased and rare cuts, from the Okeh label 1966/67 and the Reprise label 1970/72. Included was the full Southern Child album, produced and composed mostly by Richard, scheduled for release in 1972, but shelved.

 

In 2006, Little Richard was featured in a popular advertisement for the GEICO brand. A 2005 recording of his duet vocals with Jerry Lee Lewis on a cover of the Beatles' "I Saw Her Standing There" was included on Lewis's 2006 album, Last Man Standing.

 

The same year, Richard was a guest judge on the TV series Celebrity Duets. Richard and Lewis performed alongside John Fogerty at the 2008 Grammy Awards in a tribute to the two artists considered to be cornerstones of rock and roll by the NARAS.

 

That same year, Richard appeared on radio host Don Imus' benefit album for sick children, The Imus Ranch Record. In June 2010, Richard recorded a gospel track for an upcoming tribute album to songwriting legend Dottie Rambo.

 

In 2009, Richard was Inducted into The Louisiana Music Hall Of Fame in a concert in New Orleans, attended by Fats Domino.

 

Throughout the first decade of the new millennium, Richard kept up a stringent touring schedule, performing primarily in the United States and Europe. However, sciatic nerve pain in his left leg and then replacement of the involved hip began affecting the frequency of his performances by 2010.

 

Despite his health problems, Richard continued to perform to receptive audiences and critics. Rolling Stone reported that at a performance at the Howard Theater in Washington, D.C., in June 2012:

 

"Richard was still full of fire, still a master

showman, his voice still loaded with deep

gospel and raunchy power."

 

Richard performed a full 90-minute show at the Pensacola Interstate Fair in Pensacola, Florida, in October 2012, at the age of 79, and headlined at the Orleans Hotel in Las Vegas during Viva Las Vegas Rockabilly Weekend in March 2013.

 

In September 2013, Rolling Stone published an interview with Richard who said that he would be retiring from performing. He told the magazine:

 

"I am done, in a sense, because I don't

feel like doing anything right now.

I think my legacy should be that when I

started in showbusiness there wasn't no

such thing as rock'n'roll.

When I started with 'Tutti Frutti', that's

when rock really started rocking."

 

Richard performed one last concert in Murfreesboro, Tennessee in 2014.

 

In June 2015, Richard appeared before a benefit concert audience, clad in sparkly boots and a brightly colored jacket at the Wildhorse Saloon in Nashville to receive the Rhapsody & Rhythm Award from and raise funds for the National Museum of African American Music.

 

He charmed the crowd by reminiscing about his early days working in Nashville nightclubs. In May 2016, the National Museum of African American Music issued a press release indicating that Richard was one of the key artists and music industry leaders that attended its third annual Celebration of Legends Luncheon in Nashville.

 

In 2016, a new CD was released on Hitman Records, California (I'm Comin') with released and previously unreleased material from the 1970's, including a cappella version of his 1975 single release, "Try to Help Your Brother".

 

On the 6th. September 2017, Richard participated in a long television interview for the Christian Three Angels Broadcasting Network, appearing in a wheelchair, clean-shaven, without make-up, dressed in a blue paisley coat and tie, where he discussed his lifelong Christian faith.

 

On the 23rd. October 2019, Richard addressed the audience after appearing to receive the Distinguished Artist Award at the 2019 Tennessee Governor's Arts Awards at the Governor's Residence in Nashville, Tennessee.

 

Little Richard's Personal Life

 

(i) Relationships and Family

 

Around 1956, Richard became involved with Audrey Robinson, a sixteen-year-old college student, originally from Savannah, Georgia. Richard and Robinson quickly got acquainted, despite Robinson not being a fan of rock and roll music.

 

Richard said in his 1984 autobiography that he invited other men to have sexual encounters with her, including Buddy Holly, although Audrey denied those statements.

 

Richard proposed marriage to Robinson, but she refused. Robinson later became known under the name Lee Angel as a stripper and socialite. Richard re-connected with Robinson in the 1960's, though she left him again after his drug abuse worsened.

 

Robinson was interviewed for Richard's 1985 documentary on The South Bank Show, and denied Richard's statements. According to Robinson, Richard would use her to buy food in whites-only fast food stores, as he could not enter any, due to the color of his skin.

 

Richard met his only wife, Ernestine Harvin, at an evangelical rally in October 1957. They began dating that year, and wed on the 12th. July 1959 in California. According to Harvin, she and Richard initially enjoyed a happy marriage with "normal" sexual relations.

 

When the marriage ended in divorce in 1964, Harvin said it was due to her husband's celebrity status, which had made life difficult for her. Richard said the marriage fell apart due to his being a neglectful husband and because of his sexuality.

 

Both Robinson and Harvin denied Richard's statements that he was gay, and Richard believed they did not know it because:

 

"I was such a pumper

in those days".

 

During the marriage, Richard and Harvin adopted a one-year-old boy, Danny Jones, from a late church associate. Richard and his son remained close, with Jones often acting as one of his bodyguards. Harvin later married McDonald Campbell in Santa Barbara, California, on the 23rd. March 1975.

 

(ii) Little Richard's Sexuality

 

In 1984, Richard said that he just played with girls as a child, and was subjected to homosexual jokes and ridicule because of his manner of walking and talking. His father brutally punished him whenever he caught him wearing his mother's makeup and clothing.

 

The singer said he had been sexually involved with both sexes as a teenager. Because of his effeminate mannerisms, his father kicked him out of their family home when he was fifteen. In 1985, on The South Bank Show, Richard explained:

 

"My daddy put me out of the house.

He said he wanted seven boys, and

I had spoiled it, because I was gay."

 

Richard got involved in voyeurism in his early twenties. A female friend would drive him around picking up men who would allow him to watch them having sex in the backseat of cars.

 

Richard's activity caught the attention of the Macon police in 1955, and he was arrested after a gas station attendant reported sexual activity in a car Richard was occupying with a heterosexual couple. Cited on a sexual misconduct charge, he spent three days in jail, and was temporarily banned from performing in Macon.

 

In the early 1950's, Richard became acquainted with openly gay musician Billy Wright, who helped in establishing Richard's look. Billy advised Richard to use pancake makeup, and to wear his hair in a long-haired pompadour style similar to his.

 

As Richard got used to the makeup, he ordered his band, the Upsetters, to wear makeup too, in order to gain entry into predominantly white venues. He later stated:

 

"I wore the make-up so that white

men wouldn't think I was after the

white girls.

It made things easier for me, plus

it was colorful too."

 

In 2000, Richard told Jet magazine:

 

"I figure if being called a sissy would

make me famous, let them say what

they want to."

 

Richard's look, however, still attracted female audiences, who would send him naked photos and their phone numbers.

 

During Richard's heyday, his obsession with voyeurism and group sex continued, with his girlfriend Audrey Robinson participating. Richard wrote that Robinson would have sex with men while she sexually stimulated Richard.

 

Despite saying he was "born again" after leaving rock and roll for the church in 1957, Richard left Oakwood College after exposing himself to a male student. The incident was reported to the student's father, and Richard withdrew from the college.

 

In 1962, Richard was arrested for spying on men urinating in toilets at a Trailways bus station in Long Beach, California. However he still participated in orgies, and continued to be a voyeur.

 

On the 4th. May 1982, on Late Night with David Letterman, Richard said:

 

"God gave me the victory. I'm not gay

now, but, you know, I was gay all my

life. I believe I was one of the first gay

people to come out.

But God let me know that he made

Adam be with Eve, not Steve.

So, I gave my heart to Christ."

 

In his 1984 book, while demeaning homosexuality as "unnatural" and "contagious", he told Charles White that he was "omnisexual".

 

In 1995, Richard told Penthouse that he always knew he was gay, saying "I've been gay all my life". In 2007, Mojo Magazine referred to Richard as "bisexual".

 

In October 2017, Richard once again denounced homosexuality in an interview with the Christian Three Angels Broadcasting Network, stating that:

 

"Homosexual and transgender identity

is an unnatural affectation that goes

against the way God wants you to live."

 

(iii) Little Richard's Drug Use

 

During his initial heyday in the 1950's rock and roll scene, Richard was a teetotaler, abstaining from alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs. Richard often fined bandmates for drug and alcohol use during this era.

 

By the mid-1960's, however, Richard began drinking large amounts of alcohol, as well as smoking cigarettes and marijuana. By 1972, he had developed an addiction to cocaine. He later lamented that period:

 

"They should have called me

Lil Cocaine, I was sniffing so

much of that stuff!"

 

By 1975, he had developed addictions to both heroin and PCP, otherwise known as "angel dust". His drug and alcohol misuse began to affect his professional career and personal life. He later recalled:

 

"I lost my reasoning."

 

Of his cocaine addiction, Richard said that he did whatever he could to use cocaine. Richard admitted that his addictions to cocaine, PCP and heroin were costing him as much as $1,000 a day.

 

In 1977, longtime friend Larry Williams once showed up with a gun and threatened to kill Richard for failing to pay his drug debt. Richard said that this was the most fearful moment of his life; Williams' own drug addiction made him wildly unpredictable.

 

Richard did acknowledge that he and Williams were "very close friends," and when reminiscing about the drug-fueled clash, he recalled thinking:

 

"I knew he loved me—

I hoped he did!"

 

Within that same year, Richard had several devastating personal experiences, including his brother Tony's death from a heart attack, the accidental shooting of his nephew whom he loved like a son, and the murder of two close personal friends – one a valet at "the heroin man's house."

 

These experiences convinced the singer to give up drugs and alcohol, along with rock and roll, and return to the ministry.

 

(iv) Little Richard and Religion

 

Richard's family had deep evangelical (Baptist and African Methodist Episcopal) Christian roots, including two uncles and a grandfather who were preachers. He also took part in Macon's Pentecostal churches, which were his favorites, mainly due to their music, charismatic praise, dancing in the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues.

 

At the age of ten, influenced by Pentecostalism, he would go around saying that he was a faith healer, singing gospel music to people who were feeling sick, and touching them.

 

He later recalled that they would often say that they felt better after he prayed for them, and would sometimes give him money. Richard had aspirations of being a preacher due to the influence of singing evangelist Brother Joe May.

 

After he was born again in 1957, Richard enrolled at Oakwood College in Huntsville, Alabama, a mostly black Seventh-day Adventist college, to study theology. It was also at this time that he became a vegetarian.

 

Richard returned to secular music in the early 1960's. He was eventually ordained a minister in 1970, and resumed evangelical activities in 1977. Richard represented Memorial Bibles International, and sold their Black Heritage Bible, which highlighted the Book's many black characters.

 

As a preacher, he evangelized in anything from small churches to packed auditoriums of 20,000 or more. His preaching focused on uniting the races, and bringing lost souls to repentance through God's love.

 

In 1984, Richard's mother, Leva Mae, died following a period of illness. Only a few months prior to her death, Richard promised her that he would remain a Christian.

 

During the 1980's and 1990's, Richard officiated at celebrity weddings. In 2006, in one ceremony, Richard wedded twenty couples who had won a contest.

 

Richard used his experience and knowledge as an elder statesman of rock and roll to preach at funerals of musical friends such as Wilson Pickett and Ike Turner.

 

At a benefit concert in 2009 to raise funds to help rebuild children's playgrounds that were destroyed by Hurricane Katrina, Richard asked guest of honor Fats Domino to pray with him and others. His assistants handed out inspirational booklets at the concert, a common practice at Richard's shows.

 

Richard told a Howard Theatre, Washington, D.C. audience in June 2012:

 

"I know this is not Church, but

get close to the Lord. The world

is getting close to the end. Get

close to the Lord."

 

In 2013, Richard elaborated on his spiritual philosophies, stating:

 

"God talked to me the other night.

He said He's getting ready to come.

The world's getting ready to end,

and He's coming, wrapped in flames

of fire with a rainbow around His

throne."

 

Rolling Stone reported that Richard's apocalyptic prophesies generated snickers from some audience members as well as cheers of support. He responded to the laughter by stating:

 

"When I talk to you about Jesus, I'm

not playing. I'm almost 81 years old.

Without God, I wouldn't be here."

 

Little Richard's Health Problems and Death

 

In October 1985, having finished his album Lifetime Friend, Richard returned from England to film a guest spot on the show Miami Vice. Following the taping, he accidentally crashed his sports car into a telephone pole in West Hollywood. He suffered a broken right leg, broken ribs and head and facial injuries.

 

Richard's recovery from the accident took several months, preventing him from attending the inaugural Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony in January 1986 where he was one of several inductees. He instead supplied a recorded message.

 

In 2007, Richard began having problems walking due to sciatica in his left leg, requiring him to use crutches. In November 2009, he entered hospital to have replacement surgery on his left hip.

 

Despite returning to performing the following year, Richard's problems with his hip continued, and he was brought onstage in a wheelchair, only being able to play sitting down.

 

On the 30th. September 2013, he revealed to CeeLo Green at a Recording Academy fundraiser that he had suffered a heart attack at home the week before. Taking aspirin and having his son turn on the air conditioner saved his life, according to his doctor. Richard stated:

 

"Jesus had something for me.

He brought me through."

 

On the 28th. April 2016, Richard's friend Bootsy Collins stated on his Facebook page that:

 

"Richard is not in the best of

health, so I ask all the Funkateers

to lift him up."

 

Reports began being posted on the internet stating that Richard was in grave health, and that his family were gathering at his bedside. On the 3rd. May 2016, Rolling Stone issued a rebuttal by Richard and his lawyer. Richard stated:

 

"Not only is my family not gathering

around me because I'm ill, but I'm still

singing. I don't perform like I used to,

but I have my singing voice, I walk

around, I had hip surgery a while ago,

but I'm healthy.'"

 

His lawyer said:

 

"He's 83. I don't know how many

83-year-olds still get up and rock

it out every week, but in light of

the rumors, I wanted to tell you

that he's vivacious and conversant

about a ton of different things, and

he's still very active in a daily routine."

 

Though Richard continued to sing into his eighties, he kept away from the stage.

 

On the 9th. May 2020, after a two month illness, Richard died at the age of 87 at his home in Tullahoma, Tennessee, from a cause related to bone cancer. His brother, sister, and son were with him at the time.

 

Richard received tributes from many popular musicians, including Bob Dylan, Paul McCartney, Mick Jagger, John Fogerty, Elton John, and Lenny Kravitz, as well as many others, such as film director John Waters, who were influenced by Richard's music and persona.

 

Richard was laid to rest at Oakwood University Memorial Gardens Cemetery in Huntsville, Alabama.

 

Little Richard's Legacy

 

Richard claimed to be "The Architect of Rock and Roll", and history would seem to bear out his boast. More than any other performer—save, perhaps, for Elvis Presley, Little Richard blew the lid off the Fifties, laying the foundation for rock and roll with his explosive music and charismatic persona.

 

On record, he made spine-tingling rock and roll. His frantically charged piano playing and raspy, shouted vocals on such classics as "Tutti Frutti", "Long Tall Sally" and "Good Golly, Miss Molly" defined the dynamic sound of rock and roll.

 

Richard's music and performance style had a pivotal effect on the sound and style of popular music genres of the 20th. century. As a rock and roll pioneer, Richard embodied its spirit more flamboyantly than any other performer.

 

Richard's raspy shouting style gave the genre one of its most identifiable and influential vocal sounds, and his fusion of boogie-woogie, New Orleans R&B and gospel music blazed its rhythmic trail.

 

Richard's innovative emotive vocalizations and uptempo rhythmic music also played a key role in the formation of other popular music genres, including soul and funk.

 

He influenced numerous singers and musicians across musical genres from rock to hip hop; his music helped shape rhythm and blues for generations to come.

 

Combining elements of boogie, gospel, and blues, Richard introduced several of rock music's most characteristic musical features, including its loud volume and vocal style emphasizing power, and its distinctive beat and innovative visceral rhythms.

 

He departed from boogie-woogie's shuffle rhythm, and introduced a new distinctive rock beat, where the beat division is even at all tempos. He reinforced the new rock rhythm with a two-handed approach, playing patterns with his right hand, with the rhythm typically popping out in the piano's high register.

 

His new rhythm, which he introduced with "Tutti Frutti" (1955), became the basis for the standard rock beat, which was later consolidated by Chuck Berry.

 

"Lucille" (1957) foreshadowed the rhythmic feel of 1960's classic rock in several ways, including its heavy bassline, slower tempo, strong rock beat played by the entire band, and verse–chorus form similar to blues.

 

Richard's voice was able to generate croons, wails, and screams unprecedented in popular music. He was cited by two of soul music's pioneers, Otis Redding and Sam Cooke, as contributing to the genre's early development.

 

Redding stated that most of his music was patterned after Richard's, referring to his 1953 recording "Directly From My Heart To You" as the personification of soul, and that:

 

"Richard has done a lot for

me and my soul brothers

in the music business."

 

Cooke said in 1962 that:

 

"Richard has done so

much for our music".

 

Cooke had a top 40 hit in 1963 with his cover of Richard's 1956 hit "Send Me Some Loving".

 

James Brown and others credited Richard and his mid-1950's backing band, The Upsetters, with having been the first to put funk in the rock beat. This innovation sparked the transition from 1950's rock and roll to 1960's funk.

 

Richard's hits of the mid-1950's, such as "Tutti Frutti", "Long Tall Sally", "Keep A-Knockin'" and "Good Golly, Miss Molly", were generally characterized by playful lyrics with sexually suggestive connotations.

 

AllMusic writer Richie Unterberger stated that:

 

"Little Richard merged the fire of

gospel with New Orleans R&B,

pounding the piano and wailing

with gleeful abandon. While other

R&B greats of the early 1950's had

been moving in a similar direction,

none of them matched the sheer

electricity of Richard's vocals.

With his high-speed deliveries,

ecstatic trills, and the overjoyed

force of personality in his singing,

he was crucial in upping the voltage

from high-powered R&B into the

similar, yet different, guise of rock

and roll."

 

Emphasizing the folk influences of Richard, English professor W. T. Lhamon Jr. wrote:

 

"His songs were literally good

booty. They were the repressed

stuff of underground lore.

And in Little Richard they found

a vehicle prepared to bear their

chocked energy, at least for his

capsulated moment."

 

Ray Charles introduced him at a concert in 1988 as:

 

"A man that started a kind of music

that set the pace for a lot of what's

happening today."

 

Richard's contemporaries, including Elvis Presley, Buddy Holly, Bill Haley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Pat Boone, the Everly Brothers, Gene Vincent and Eddie Cochran, all recorded covers of his works.

 

As they wrote about him for their Man of the Year – Legend Category in 2010, GQ magazine stated that:

 

"Richard is, without question, the

boldest and most influential of the

founding fathers of rock'n'roll."

 

Little Richard's Influence on Society

 

In addition to his musical style, Richard was cited as one of the first crossover black artists, reaching audiences of all races. His music and concerts broke the color line, despite attempts to sustain segregation.

 

As H. B. Barnum explained in Quasar of Rock:

 

"Little Richard opened the door.

He brought the races together."

 

Barnum described Richard's music as follows:

 

"It wasn't boy-meets-girl-girl-meets-boy,

they were fun records, all fun. And they

had a lot to say sociologically in our

country and the world."

 

Barnum also stated that:

 

"Richard's charisma was a whole

new thing to the music business.

He would burst onto the stage

from anywhere, and you wouldn't

be able to hear anything but the

roar of the audience. He might

come out and walk on the piano.

He might go out into the audience."

 

Barnum also stated that Richard was innovative in that he would wear colorful capes, blouse shirts, makeup and suits studded with multi-colored stones and sequins, and that he also brought flickering stage lighting from his show business experience into performance venues where rock and roll artists performed.

 

In 2015, the National Museum of African American Music honored Richard for helping to shatter the color line on the music charts and changing American culture for ever.

 

Ian "Lemmy" Kilmister of the heavy metal band Motörhead spoke highly of Little Richard, stating:

 

"Little Richard was always my main

man. How hard must it have been

for him: gay, black and singing in

the South? But his records are a

joyous good time from beginning

to end."

 

The Influence of Little Richard

 

Richard influenced generations of performers across musical genres. Quincy Jones stated that:

 

"Richard was an innovator whose

influence spans America's musical

diaspora from Gospel, the Blues &

R&B, to Rock & Roll, & Hip-Hop."

 

James Brown and Otis Redding both idolized him. Brown allegedly came up with the Famous Flames debut hit, "Please, Please, Please", after Richard had written the words on a napkin.

 

Redding started his professional career with Richard's band, The Upsetters, and first entered a talent show performing Richard's "Heeby Jeebies", winning for fifteen consecutive weeks.

 

Ike Turner claimed that most of Tina Turner's early vocal delivery was based on Richard, something Richard reiterated in the introduction to Turner's autobiography, Takin' Back My Name.

 

Bob Dylan first performed covers of Richard's songs on piano in high school with his rock and roll group, the Golden Chords; in 1959 when leaving school, he wrote in his yearbook under "Ambition": "to join Little Richard".

 

Jimi Hendrix was influenced in appearance (clothing and hairstyle/mustache) and sound by Richard. He was quoted in 1966 saying:

 

"I want to do with my guitar what

Little Richard does with his voice."

Another in my series of Dunkirk Little ships

Buying a pleasure boat is rarely the outcome of logical thought. More often it is a sudden impulse; certainly it is a love affair, indulged in even by men of otherwise strong character and sound judgment. No wonder we attribute the feminine gender to boats.

Malcolm Campbell, world land-speed record holder in 1924, was knighted in the year he commissioned his new boat Blue Bird. He added the world water-speed record to his others just six years later. The name Blue Bird, was taken from Maeterlink's play L 'Oiseau Bleu, and given to all his record-breaking cars and boats and the three successive yachts he owned. Bluebird of Chelsea (her present name) was Malcolm Campbell's second yacht. He sold her after only three years when he felt uncomfortable about her petrol engines, which he considered dangerous. A gypsy had once warned him that "his death would come from the water". Bluebird had three more owners before the war and, like others of her kind, was requisitioned by the Admiralty. She made two false starts in getting to Dunkirk. The first time she developed engine trouble. Then, when she got as far as Sheerness, there were too many volunteers and she was left behind.

Finally, she set out, commanded by a yachtsman, Lt. Col. Barnard, with a crew of naval ratings. At 4ft 3ins her draft was too great to let her work comfortably off the beaches, so she must have ferried troops from the harbour. She suffered no major damage, but it was recorded that her fuel tanks were accidentally refilled with water. Bluebird's twin screws were fouled by debris and her engines stopped. She may have picked up one of the many army greatcoats discarded by soldiers to make it easier for them to swim to the rescuing ships.

Bluebird was finally towed back to England. After Dunkirk, for the rest of the war from 1942 onwards, she was used by No. 1 Water Transport Co., RASC based in Gourock, near Holy Loch. She was used for the movement of troops, food and equipment around various Coastal Artillery sites guarding the entrance to the River Clyde. She was also used for advanced navigation exercises based at Rothesay on the Isle of Butte. In 1943 she was used by the Orkney and Shetlands section RASC for the movement of personnel and equipment throughout the islands. She apparently finished the war being used for target towing and radar decoy work between Weymouth and Gosport, still in service with the RASC. Then, in 1984, she made another conquest. A new admirer took up with her, aware of the illustrious past and dormant beauty, but apparently blind to the enormity of what he was taking on!

Martin Summers, a dealer in impressionist paintings living in Chelsea, took his daughter along the embankment to Cadogan Pier where she asked him why they could not have a boat. Though no sailor himself, the idea appealed to him and he discussed it with his friend, Scott Beadle, an art director and experienced mariner. This was just the kind of assignment Scott enjoys and it was not long before he found the very thing. An advertisement in 'Yachting Monthly' described 'a beautiful yacht originally built for Sir Malcolm Campbell, lying in the South of France' and she appeared to be going cheap. Martin Summers became enthusiastic and within a few days, he and Scott Beadle were on their way to Grau du Roi in the Camargue to see the lady. What they found made their hearts sink. She was clearly in a very poor state and Scott, from his knowledge of boats, realised that the cost of restoring her would be prohibitive. But before they could abandon their idea, fate intervened. While they were aboard, their hire car had been broken into and all their money and possessions taken. They appealed for help to Bluebird's owner who consoled them so well that their optimism returned. In the middle of the night they went back to have another look at their dream. By the light of their headlamps, the ship looked far more romantic. They found a hatch open and climbed aboard and as the battery of their car began to run out, the depressing aspect of rotting wood faded and they saw a vision of what might be. By now they had talked themselves into it.

Back in London, they appointed a surveyor who explained that the ship had been well built and its hull was sound, but that restoring her would not only be expensive, but would require skills which are no longer common. Martin Summers decided to buy Bluebird and found a delivery skipper, 'Ginge' Sargeant who, with only one engine working, started out for England. She leaked, she listed, but she limped home. Martin and Scott flew out several times to check on her progress. Finally, there only remained the English Channel which she had crossed so gallantly in 1940. As on that memorable occasion, she needed to be towed home again this time, when her second engine stopped.

New plans were drawn up based on the original ones from a 1931 copy of 'Motorboat'. The entire wheelhouse was rebuilt and a new transom was constructed. The large sliding sun-roof was improved to keep the water out and the after-deck was carefully redesigned to provide a large and elegant dining area with a folding table and varnished lockers which double as seats. A new clinker built dinghy of traditional design was added and swung from derricks at the stern. The hull was carefully shored up to preserve its elegant shape while the deck and beams were removed. New planks were fitted to the hull, the ribs were doubled up and strengthened and an entirely new teak deck was laid.

Scott Beadle took charge of the machinery and Graham Parker of the electrics. Her two Perkins diesels were entirely overhauled and a 10KVA 240-volt generator was added to supply the domestic equipment and charge her over-size batteries. The latest radio and navigation equipment was installed in the mahogany panelled wheelhouse, alongside the old brass compass and wooden wheel. Every handhold and window catch, every light fitting, hatch and porthole is in period and in impeccable taste. The floor throughout is covered in Persian rugs. When Bluebird was first built, it took Thornycrofts 55 days. Her restoration in 1984 took a whole year and cost fifty times as much but then, when men of vision fall in love, they rarely count the cost!

Bluebird of Chelsea, as she was named when they relaunched her on 19th April 1986, like any wise and well- loved mistress, has repaid Martin Summers amply for his generosity and care. Lying at Cadogan Pier, in the heart of London and only a few hundred yards from his beautiful Chelsea home, Bluebird has opened a new dimension in his life. The world looks quite different from a small boat than from land or from an ocean liner. Strangely, she spent much of her time at Cadogan Pier in Malcolm Campbell's day. Martin Summers has cruised many of the Dutch and French canals, has taken her to Paris 6 times and to the lochs of Scotland plus many trips along the North coast of France - more than 30,000nm in total.

Bluebird has given Martin Summers access to more than just the world of cruising. Through her, he has become one of a very exclusive circle far removed from his world of modern art. The Association of Dunkirk Little Ships is quite different from any ordinary yacht club. It is the ship which qualifies you for membership. Only owners of authentic Dunkirk Little Ships can join. But that is the only qualification. Wealth, connections and social class are considered totally irrelevant.

Among the members are cockle fishermen, Thames firemen, ship-wrights and garage mechanics. There is a spirit among members of the Association which makes it quite unique. They treat their ships with a kind of reverence and all of the owners make great sacrifices for them, in time and money. They all share the belief that the Little Ships of Dunkirk should never be allowed to die and yet few would wish them to become museum pieces like vintage cars or sought-after rarities to be auctioned at Sotheby's.

This vessel is one featured individually on a series of stamps called 'Little Ships of Dunkirk'. These were issued in Palau in 2015 to commemorate the 75th anniversary of Op. Dynamo. Seen here returning to Dunkirk in 2015 (75th anniversary)

Thanks to the adls website

 

MY THANKS TO ALL WHO VISIT AND COMMENT IT IS APPRECIATED

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

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Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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God Himself, the Unique III God’s Authority (II)

 

God's word: “3. Believing in Fate Is No Substitute for a Knowledge of the Creator’s Sovereignty

After being a follower of God for so many years, is there a substantial difference between your knowledge of fate and that of the worldly people? Have you truly understood the predestination of the Creator, and truly come to know the Creator’s sovereignty? Some people have a profound, deeply-felt understanding of the phrase “that’s fate,” yet they do not in the least bit believe in God’s sovereignty, do not believe that human fate is arranged and orchestrated by God, and are unwilling to submit to the sovereignty of God. Such people are as if adrift on the ocean, tossed by the waves, floating with the current, with no choice but to wait passively and resign themselves to fate. Yet they do not recognize that human fate is subject to God’s sovereignty; they cannot come to know God’s sovereignty on their own initiative, and thereby achieve knowledge of God’s authority, submit to God’s orchestrations and arrangements, stop resisting fate, and live under God’s care, protection, and guidance. In other words, accepting fate is not the same thing as submitting to the Creator’s sovereignty; belief in fate does not mean that one accepts, recognizes, and knows the Creator’s sovereignty; belief in fate is just recognition of this fact and this outer phenomenon, which is different from knowing how the Creator rules humanity’s fate, from recognizing that the Creator is the source of dominion over the fates of all things, and even more from submitting to the Creator’s orchestrations and arrangements for humanity’s fate. If a person only believes in fate—even feels deeply about it—but is not thereby able to know, recognize, submit to, and accept the Creator’s sovereignty over the fate of humanity, then his or her life will nonetheless be a tragedy, a life lived in vain, a void; he or she will still be unable to become subject to the Creator’s dominion, to become a created human being in the truest sense of the phrase, and enjoy the Creator’s approval. A person who truly knows and experiences the Creator’s sovereignty should be in an active, not passive or helpless state. While at the same time accepting that all things are fated, he or she should possess an accurate definition of life and fate: that every life is subject to the Creator’s sovereignty. When one looks back upon the road one has walked, when one recollects every phase of one’s journey, one sees that at every step, whether one’s road was arduous or smooth, God was guiding one’s path, planning it out. It was God’s meticulous arrangements, His careful planning, that led one, unknowingly, to today. To be able to accept the Creator’s sovereignty, to receive His salvation—what great fortune that is! If a person’s attitude toward fate is passive, it proves that he or she is resisting everything that God has arranged for him or her, that he or she does not have a submissive attitude. If one’s attitude toward God’s sovereignty over human fate is active, then when one looks back upon one’s journey, when one truly comes to grips with God’s sovereignty, one will more earnestly desire to submit to everything that God has arranged, will have more of the determination and confidence to let God orchestrate one’s fate, to stop rebelling against God. For one sees that when one does not comprehend fate, when one does not understand God’s sovereignty, when one gropes forward willfully, staggering and tottering, through the fog, the journey is too difficult, too heartbreaking. So when people recognize God’s sovereignty over human fate, the smart ones choose to know it and accept it, to bid farewell to the painful days when they tried to build a good life with their own two hands, instead of continuing to struggle against fate and pursue their so-called life goals in their own manner. When one has no God, when one cannot see Him, when one cannot clearly recognize God’s sovereignty, every day is meaningless, worthless, miserable. Wherever one is, whatever one’s job is, one’s means of living and the pursuit of one’s goals bring one nothing but endless heartbreak and irrelievable suffering, such that one cannot bear to look back. Only when one accepts the Creator’s sovereignty, submits to His orchestrations and arrangements, and seeks true human life, will one gradually break free from all heartbreak and suffering, shake off all the emptiness of life.”

Recommended for You: God's Work

 

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

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Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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John 1:12–13 (ESV)

12 But to all who did receive him, who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God, 13 who were born, not of blood nor of the will of the flesh nor of the will of man, but of God.

 

FAITH—Faith is in general the persuasion of the mind that a certain statement is true (Phil. 1:27; 2 Thess. 2:13). Its primary idea is trust. A thing is true, and therefore worthy of trust. It admits of many degrees up to full assurance of faith, in accordance with the evidence on which it rests.

Faith is the result of teaching (Rom. 10:14–17). Knowledge is an essential element in all faith, and is sometimes spoken of as an equivalent to faith (John 10:38; 1 John 2:3). Yet the two are distinguished in this respect, that faith includes in it assent, which is an act of the will in addition to the act of the understanding. Assent to the truth is of the essence of faith, and the ultimate ground on which our assent to any revealed truth rests is the veracity of God.

Historical faith is the apprehension of and assent to certain statements which are regarded as mere facts of history.

Temporary faith is that state of mind which is awakened in men (e.g., Felix) by the exhibition of the truth and by the influence of religious sympathy, or by what is sometimes styled the common operation of the Holy Spirit.

Saving faith is so called because it has eternal life inseparably connected with it. It cannot be better defined than in the words of the Assembly’s Shorter Catechism: “Faith in Jesus Christ is a saving grace, whereby we receive and rest upon him alone for salvation, as he is offered to us in the gospel.”

The object of saving faith is the whole revealed Word of God. Faith accepts and believes it as the very truth most sure. But the special act of faith which unites to Christ has as its object the person and the work of the Lord Jesus Christ (John 7:38; Acts 16:31). This is the specific act of faith by which a sinner is justified before God (Rom. 3:22, 25; Gal. 2:16; Phil. 3:9; John 3:16–36; Acts 10:43; 16:31). In this act of faith the believer appropriates and rests on Christ alone as Mediator in all his offices.

This assent to or belief in the truth received upon the divine testimony has always associated with it a deep sense of sin, a distinct view of Christ, a consenting will, and a loving heart, together with a reliance on, a trusting in, or resting in Christ. It is that state of mind in which a poor sinner, conscious of his sin, flees from his guilty self to Christ his Saviour, and rolls over the burden of all his sins on him. It consists chiefly, not in the assent given to the testimony of God in his Word, but in embracing with fiducial reliance and trust the one and only Saviour whom God reveals. This trust and reliance is of the essence of faith. By faith the believer directly and immediately appropriates Christ as his own. Faith in its direct act makes Christ ours. It is not a work which God graciously accepts instead of perfect obedience, but is only the hand by which we take hold of the person and work of our Redeemer as the only ground of our salvation.

Saving faith is a moral act, as it proceeds from a renewed will, and a renewed will is necessary to believing assent to the truth of God (1 Cor. 2:14; 2 Cor. 4:4). Faith, therefore, has its seat in the moral part of our nature fully as much as in the intellectual. The mind must first be enlightened by divine teaching (John 6:44; Acts 13:48; 2 Cor. 4:6; Eph. 1:17, 18) before it can discern the things of the Spirit.

Faith is necessary to our salvation (Mark 16:16), not because there is any merit in it, but simply because it is the sinner’s taking the place assigned him by God, his falling in with what God is doing.

The warrant or ground of faith is the divine testimony, not the reasonableness of what God says, but the simple fact that he says it. Faith rests immediately on, “Thus saith the Lord.” But in order to this faith the veracity, sincerity, and truth of God must be owned and appreciated, together with his unchangeableness. God’s word encourages and emboldens the sinner personally to transact with Christ as God’s gift, to close with him, embrace him, give himself to Christ, and take Christ as his. That word comes with power, for it is the word of God who has revealed himself in his works, and especially in the cross. God is to be believed for his word’s sake, but also for his name’s sake.

Faith in Christ secures for the believer freedom from condemnation, or justification before God; a participation in the life that is in Christ, the divine life (John 14:19; Rom. 6:4–10; Eph. 4:15, 16, etc.); “peace with God” (Rom. 5:1); and sanctification (Acts 26:18; Gal. 5:6; Acts 15:9).

All who thus believe in Christ will certainly be saved (John 6:37, 40; 10:27, 28; Rom. 8:1).

The faith=the gospel (Acts 6:7; Rom. 1:5; Gal. 1:23; 1 Tim. 3:9; Jude 1:3).

  

M. G. Easton, Easton’s Bible Dictionary (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1893).

At Pentecost the disciples were baptized with the Holy Spirit and fire. Fire is needed to preserve unity. The fire of Pentecost – the first love

“Then those who gladly received his word were baptized; and that day about three thousand souls were added to them. And they continued steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine and fellowship, in the breaking of bread, and in prayers.” Acts 2:41-42.

The first church continued daily with one accord in the temple. They gathered in one spirit against all the spiritual hosts of wickedness. The first love was burning in their hearts. People had fallen prey to Satan for centuries, but now he had to retreat before this fire of Pentecost.

The wild beasts keep a distance from the fire

If you want to protect yourself in the jungle from wild beasts, you light a fire. The wild beasts will watch from a safe distance in the jungle, and whenever the flames blaze up, they draw back a few feet. But when the flames begin to die down, they crawl a little closer, and they continue to crawl closer, little by little, as the fire dies down. Those who are on the periphery will be the first ones to fall prey to the wild beasts. If the fire dies out completely, everyone will become their prey. This is a picture of what can happen in the church of the living God.

We read in Acts 6:1 that when the number of the disciples was multiplying, there arose a murmuring against the Hebrews by the Greek-speaking Jews. Here we can see how quickly the growling of the wild beasts could be heard from among those who were on the periphery of the first church. Paul says in chapter 20:28-29, “Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, among which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to shepherd the church of God which He purchased with His own blood. For I know this, that after my departure savage wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock.”

Paul strongly exhorts the elders to watch over the flock and to guard them against these savage wolves. Nothing should be spared to protect God's flock, which Jesus won with His own blood. This is when we need to love Christ “more than these.” Read John 21:15-17.

The fire of Pentecost is always burning in the disciples

Satan could not do anything with the core of disciples in the first church; they were invincible. The fire of Pentecost burned in each one of them until their dying day. Even in our days beasts of prey are prowling around the church of the living God, and every once in a while you can hear growling and roaring on the periphery. However, even now there is a core of disciples in whose hearts the fire of Pentecost is burning brightly, and Satan has no power over them. For this reason everyone should be quick to come to the center where the fire is hottest.

If the fire is to burn, it must always be fed by the self-life. The fire of Pentecost has died out in hearts where an increasingly deeper acknowledgment of self is lacking. Then all they are left with is glorious memories of when they were baptized with the Spirit. The wild beasts—although they are in sheep's clothing—ravage such assemblies.

The fire of Pentecost must be kept burning. Fervent prayer meetings are needed. All wickedness must stop with us. Let us be on guard against any breach in fellowship with the saints, because then we are finished. We can only grow the growth of the body together with the other saints, up to Him who is the head. Only in the body is the fullness of Christ. Let us be like the core of disciples in the first church who would rather be burned at the stake than sin.

activechristianity.org/the-fire-of-pentecost

Read the Passage

 

1When the day of Pentecost arrived, they were all together in one place. 2And suddenly there came from heaven a sound like a mighty rushing wind, and it filled the entire house where they were sitting. 3And divided tongues as of fire appeared to them and rested on each one of them. 4And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit gave them utterance. 5Now there were dwelling in Jerusalem Jews, devout men from every nation under heaven. 6And at this sound the multitude came together, and they were bewildered, because each one was hearing them speak in his own language. 7And they were amazed and astonished, saying, “Are not all these who are speaking Galileans? 8And how is it that we hear, each of us in his own native language? 9Parthians and Medes and Elamites and residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, 10Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya belonging to Cyrene, and visitors from Rome, 11both Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabians—we hear them telling in our own tongues the mighty works of God.” 12And all were amazed and perplexed, saying to one another, “What does this mean?”

—Acts 2:1–12

 

The Disciples Receive the Spirit

 

Right from the beginning, Acts 2 is concerned with new structures and dynamics that bring the old structures and dynamics to their appointed end. The chapter occurs at Pentecost, the second annual feast of the Jewish year, celebrating God’s provision for his people. Also known as the Feast of Weeks in the OT (see Lev. 23:15–21; Ex. 34:22; Num. 28:26–31; Deut. 16:9–12), Pentecost came fifty days after Passover. Passover commemorated the coming of the angel of death, the last plague, to Egypt. On that night, the Israelites were told to sacrifice a lamb and spread its blood over their doorpost. The angel, seeing the blood, would pass over the Israelites but would inflict destruction on Egypt by taking its firstborn sons. This could have been avoided had Pharaoh and his court listened to Moses and freed Israel. But they refused and so paid an ultimate price for their sin against God. In the aftermath, the Israelites, having survived because of the lamb’s blood, left Egypt. God redeemed them, as promised.

 

Fifty days later, Israel was at Sinai, receiving God’s law through Moses. When they entered the land, they were to keep a feast, or festival, in which they were to bring their firstfruits (bread made from new grain) as an offering to God. The firstfruits offering stood both for hope in the coming of the full harvest and as a sign of thanksgiving for God’s provision. Pentecost was inseparable from Passover and was marked specifically from the date of Passover (Lev. 23:16). It could come only as a result of God’s previous work. Thus it was not simply about agriculture but about redemption as well. Israel offered her firstfruits to God, who saved her from slavery in Egypt. The underlying idea in the symbolism of Pentecost was that if God was able to redeem his people from Egypt, then he would be able to provide for their lives too, just as he had promised.In Acts 2, Jews in Jerusalem are still celebrating Pentecost, but this Pentecost is different. It is, in fact, the last Pentecost. It must be the last, because the final Passover took place fifty days earlier when Jesus, the spotless Lamb of God, was crucified for the sins of God’s people. This was the sacrifice to end all sacrifices (see Heb. 7:27; 9:12, 28; 10:10). Redemption from Egypt, and the Passovers that remembered it, was a shadow of something greater. Passover is fulfilled, and now it is time for the fulfillment of Pentecost. With Jesus now in heaven—a vital point for what follows—this fulfillment is precisely what happens next.

 

The disciples are together, and something happens that can be explained only by analogy, not from past experience: “Suddenly there came from heaven a sound like a mighty rushing wind,” and “divided tongues as of fire appeared to them and rested on each one of them” (Acts 2:2, 3). The words “like” and “as” are important for understanding Luke’s quintessentially biblical way of describing the scene. Commentators are divided as to whether there was an actual gust of wind accompanied by the sound, or whether there was just a sound. Whether the disciples felt a wind is unimportant. What took place is described not exactly as natural phenomena but “like” it. This is common in Scripture, particularly in texts and passages that describe heavenly scenes or times when the heavenly and earthly realms come together: gates and walls are “like” precious stones, heavenly scenes generally are described as “like” earthly analogies, and visions include things “like” wheels, fiery messengers, or various animals that sometimes combine more than one species. These are attempts to convey supernatural visions and experiences—real, experienced events, but beyond what can be described fully. In this case it sounded something like a great wind. I have an image in my mind of the apostles hearing something like the sound of wind from the inside, with walls and roofs creaking, windows rattling, and the sound of rushing air shaking everything in its path, straining to get past. Maybe to us it would have sounded like an oncoming train.

 

What is important is what the wind-like sound and the appearance of tongues like fire indicate: both point to the presence of God (cf. 1 Kings 19:11–13). Thus the prophet Ezekiel is led by the Spirit to a vision of dry bones that take on human form and are brought to life when the Spirit commands: “Prophesy to the breath; prophesy, son of man, and say to the breath, Thus says the Lord God: Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe on these slain, that they may live” (Ezek. 37:9). The image is of God’s bringing Israel back from exile, redeeming them as in a new exodus, with this great exception: this time he promises to give them his Spirit (Ezek. 37:14). Likewise, the image of fire in Acts 2 is unmistakable. It may be compared to the Lord’s appearing to Moses in a burning bush (Ex. 3:1–6) or to the people of Israel as a pillar of fire, leading them at night in their desert wanderings (Ex. 14:19–20; Num. 11:25; 12:5; 14:14; 16:42; Deut. 1:33). The fire could also be an echo of Isaiah 6:4–7, where the prophet’s tongue is cleansed with a burning coal.

 

The presence of God in Acts 2 is also accompanied by an act of God. His presence is confirmed by the direction from which the sound comes: from heaven, the place of God. This is the second time in short order that heaven and earth intersect. Jesus went into heaven; now the Spirit from heaven will invade the earthly realm, filling the apostles for witness.

 

When the apostles receive the Spirit here, this is not the moment they are “saved” or regenerated. In fact, it is not the first time they receive the Spirit. After his resurrection, Jesus appears to the Eleven and breathes on them, saying, “Receive the Holy Spirit” (John 20:22). They are also, as a result, given authority to forgive sins on his behalf (John 20:23). The reception of the Spirit in Acts 2:2 is for carrying out Jesus’ commission to witness. The apostles’ experience of the Spirit is, by necessity of their era, different than it is for every succeeding generation. This is not to say their experience is totally different or unconnected to the receiving of the Spirit seen after Peter’s sermon, only that this instance is a special equipping for a special group of people.While he was on earth, Jesus was directly present with his followers, who, even with their obvious shortcomings, did provide evidence of believing in him to whatever extent was possible (“Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life.” “You are the Christ.” “I believe; help my unbelief.”). There is no clean and easy way to determine the exact point in which the disciples became believers in the sense we use the term. They did “believe” when Jesus was alive, but their faith was not complete until the resurrection, just as Christ’s work of redemption was not complete. The disciples were sanctified by the word of Jesus while he was with them (John 13:10; 15:3; 17:17), but they would not receive the Spirit as the power of the risen Christ until after the resurrection (as promised in John 14–17). By historical and experiential necessity, the disciples occupy a different place in salvation history than we do.

 

In Acts 2:33 Peter says that Jesus “received” the Spirit from the Father specifically for the pouring out received at Pentecost. On the other hand, at Acts 8:17 some Samaritans receive the Spirit when Peter and John lay hands on them. In Acts 10:47, Peter declares that because Cornelius and other Gentiles “received” the Spirit just as Jewish believers did, there is no way to deny them baptism. The Spirit “fell” upon all gathered as Peter spoke, and those with Peter were amazed that the Spirit was “poured out” on the Gentiles just as he was on Jewish believers (Acts 10:44–45). Thus it is clear that the language for receiving the Spirit, whether for particular empowerment or for regenerating power, does not consistently distinguish between the work of witness and that of belief. All of these works—apostolic witness, signs and wonders, and regeneration—are entirely the doing of the Spirit. How the Spirit is working and what he is bringing about depends on the context.

 

Outward Manifestation

 

The Spirit came and “rested on each one” at Pentecost (Acts 2:3). This is an outward manifestation of what is taking place among them, as all those gathered in the room are “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Acts 2:4)—what Jesus promised them at his ascension now takes place. It is impossible to quantify what it means to be “filled with the Holy Spirit.” We should not think of the Spirit as some sort of heavenly gasoline that fills our spiritual tank. Luke seems to be speaking in the sense of capacity (“filling” language), but how do we think of capacity when the receptacles are people and the substance is the Holy Spirit? Can someone be filled a quarter of the way with the Spirit? At what point is one “full” of the Spirit in terms of quantity? Paul tells the Ephesian believers, who already have the Spirit, nevertheless to “be filled with the Spirit” rather than to be drunk on wine (Eph. 5:18).

 

In his Gospel, Luke uses the word “filled” in the sense of filling to capacity, as when the disciples’ boats are so full of fish that they begin to sink (Luke 5:7), or figuratively, as in “filled with great fear” (Luke 2:9) or “filled with fury” (Luke 6:11). He also uses the term to mean “fulfill” or “end,” as in to reach an appointed conclusion. Zechariah goes back home “when his time of service [as a priest] was ended” (Luke 1:23). The destruction of Jerusalem foretold in the Olivet Discourse is described as “days of vengeance, to fulfill all that is written” (Luke 21:22). Importantly, the angel tells Zechariah that his son, John, “will be filled with the Holy Spirit” (Luke 1:15); Elizabeth sees Mary and is “filled with the Holy Spirit” and begins to praise (Luke 1:41); and Zechariah is, once again, “filled with the Holy Spirit” and begins to prophesy and to praise God for what he is about to do in Israel according to his promises (Luke 1:67).

 

We find similar texts in Acts as well. Peter is filled by the Spirit and speaks to a crowd (Acts 4:8), and soon after the believers are filled with the Spirit through prayer (Acts 4:31). When the seven are chosen to look after the widows among the Greek-speaking Jews, one of their criteria is that they are to be filled with the Spirit (Acts 6:3). Ananias tells Paul he will “be filled with the Holy Spirit” (Acts 9:17). These texts, along with those in Luke, determine what the phrase means in Acts 2:4 and in Acts generally. In most cases, to be “filled with the Holy Spirit” means to be empowered for service, usually that of proclamation or mission. This does not imply an initial lack but merely communicates a special experience of the Spirit in order to carry out the mission from Jerusalem and Judea to Samaria and the ends of the earth. The Spirit’s work in salvation does not take second place in Acts—reception of the Spirit is the primary reason Gentiles must be baptized and recognized as full-fledged members of the new covenant (Acts 15:8–9)—but at Pentecost specifically the disciples are filled with power for the great work of that day.

 

Throughout Acts. . . the Spirit works in believers to empower them for service.

The Meaning of Tongues

 

As a result, those in the room “began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit gave them utterance” (Acts 2:4; cf. Acts 10:45–46; 19:6). The meaning of the word translated “tongues” (Gk. glōssai ) is disputed. Many Christians understand this verse to mean that the disciples begin to speak in a heavenly language transcending human linguistic structures—unlike any language on earth. In such an interpretation, those who hear the disciples speaking in different languages (Acts 2:6) do so because some kind of divine translation is taking place that causes the “tongues” to be heard as languages. Often in this interpretation the miracle of tongues is accompanied by a miracle of hearing. Texts such as 1 Corinthians 13:1, where Paul mentions speaking in the “tongues of men and of angels,” are cited in support (cf. 1 Cor. 14:2, 18–23, 27). Others, however, understand the disciples to be speaking in different languages, those represented in the room that day. In this interpretation there is no need for a miracle of hearing. Typically, this reading is accompanied by reading the term “tongues” in the NT as always referring to known human languages. First Corinthians 13:1 does, however, seem to distinguish human and heavenly speech. Pressing glōssai to mean “languages” in every instance in the NT seems strained. A third option is to understand the word “tongues” as being used in the NT both for human languages and for heavenly speech, with both manifestations being works of the Spirit.

 

At Pentecost the tongues seem to be languages, and thus the miracle is one of speaking, not likely one of hearing. Luke here uses the word apophthengomai (“utterance”; Acts 2:4), which recurs twice more in Acts in regard to speaking God’s word. It is clear that the Spirit empowers the disciples’ speaking, but, as seen in the upcoming verses, there is no similar indication of Spirit-empowered hearing. Throughout Acts (as demonstrated already), the Spirit works in believers to empower them for service. The Spirit does work in unbelievers, but this is part of God’s work of salvation, “having cleansed their hearts by faith” (Acts 15:9). Such is why it is important first to establish what “filled” means in this verse before considering the miracle of speaking that follows: it provides the context for understanding this highly disputed text.

 

This article is adapted from the ESV Expository Commentary: John–Acts (Volume 9).

 

Brian Vickers

Brian J. Vickers (PhD, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) is professor of New Testament interpretation and biblical theology at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary and the assistant editor of the Southern Baptist Journal of Theology. He is actively involved in leading short-term mission trips and teaching overseas. He is also a member of the Evangelical Theological Society and the Institute for Biblical Research.

 

www.crossway.org/articles/what-are-the-tongues-of-fire-ac...

Die Garnisonkirche (ehemals: Hof- und Garnisonkirche) war eine evangelische Kirche in der historischen Mitte von Potsdam, deren Turm von 2017 bis 2024 wiederaufgebaut wurde. Erbaut im Auftrag des preußischen Königs Friedrich Wilhelm I. nach Plänen des Architekten Philipp Gerlach in den Jahren 1730–1735, galt sie als ein Hauptwerk des norddeutschen Barocks. Mit einer Turmhöhe von fast 90 Metern war sie das höchste Bauwerk Potsdams und prägte im Dreikirchenblick zusammen mit der Nikolaikirche und der Heiliggeistkirche das Stadtbild. Gegen Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurde sie 1945 durch einen britischen Luftangriff in der sogenannten Nacht von Potsdam schwer beschädigt und brannte aus. Die Regierung der DDR ließ die gesicherte Ruine 1968 sprengen, um auf einem Teil des Grundstücks das Rechenzentrum Potsdam zu errichten.

Anhänger eines Wiederaufbaus des Gotteshauses traten 2004 mit dem Ruf aus Potsdam an die Öffentlichkeit. In der Folge ihres Engagements wird seit 2017 die kontrovers debattierte Rekonstruktion als offene Stadtkirche und internationales Versöhnungszentrum betrieben. Am Ostermontag 2024 wurde im wiedererrichteten Kirchturm die neue Nagelkreuzkapelle eröffnet. Im August 2024 wurde eine Ausstellung zur Geschichte des Ortes und die Aussichtsplattform in 57 Meter Höhe eröffnet. Noch fehlt dem Turm die Haube, deren Bau aber noch 2025 neben dem Turm begonnen werden und die dann bis 2027 auf den Turm gehoben werden soll. Das Kirchenschiff wird vermutlich, anders als ursprünglich geplant, nicht wieder errichtet, stattdessen wird über ein Veranstaltungszentrum oder auch einen Saal für die Stadtverordnetenversammlung diskutiert. Der Kirchturm ist bereits jetzt der höchste Aussichtspunkt Posdam, die Aussichtsterrasse ist barrierefrei zu erreichen.

Der Wiederaufbau des Turms war stark umstritten, und ist es immer noch, vor allem wegen des sogenannten "Tags von Potsdam" 1933. Bei den Reichstagswahlen vom 5. März 1933, die in einem Klima von Rechtsunsicherheit und Gewalt stattfanden, erhofften sich die Nationalsozialisten die absolute Mehrheit der Stimmen. Damit sollte die Selbstauflösung des Parlaments durchgesetzt werden, um endgültig den Weg in die Diktatur beschreiten zu können. In der Folge des Reichstagsbrandes in der Nacht vom 27. auf den 28. Februar beschloss das Reichskabinett auf Vorschlag Hitlers, die Reichstagseröffnung nach Potsdam zu verlegen. Unter Bezug auf die erste Reichstagseröffnung 1871 durch Kaiser Wilhelm I. im Weißen Saal des Berliner Schlosses wurde der 21. März als Termin festgesetzt. Höhepunkt der Feierlichkeiten war ein Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche mit Reichspräsident Paul von Hindenburg, Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler, den Mitgliedern seiner Regierung und den Reichstagsabgeordneten mit Ausnahme der Abgeordneten der SPD und der KPD sowie geladenen Gäste aus dem öffentlichen Leben, der Wirtschaft und der Reichswehr. Damit ähnelte die Zusammenkunft dem Empfang der neuen Reichstagsabgeordneten beim Kaiser, wie es vor 1918 der Brauch gewesen war. Der stark von militärischen Traditionen geprägten Staatsakt in Potsdam mit Reden Hindenburgs und Hitlers und einer großen Militärparade wurde reichsweit im Radio live übertragen und von NS-Propagandaminister Joseph Goebbels als Tag von Potsdam inszeniert. Der Handschlag Hitlers und Hindenburgs vor der Garnisonkirche wurde fotografisch festgehalten und später von der NS-Propaganda zum symbolischen Händedruck stilisiert. Die Nazis, die ihre Macht noch nicht gefestigt sahen, sahen im Staatsakt in der Garnisonkirche die Chance, eine Annäherung zwischen Hitler und Hindenburg zu inszenieren und die 1932 im Reichspräsidenten-Wahlkampf noch heftige Spaltung des Mitte-Rechts-Lagers, als überwunden darzustellen. Dieses geschichtliche Ereignis und die Interpretation der Kirche als Symbol des preußischen Militarismus waren vermutlich Hauptgrund für den Abriss der wiederaufbaufähigen Ruine im Jahr 1968 durch die DDR-Behörden gewesen.

 

Dieser Text beruht im Wesentlichen auf Wikipedia

 

The Garrison Church (formerly: Court and Garrison Church) was a Protestant church in the historic centre of Potsdam, whose tower was rebuilt from 2017 to 2024. Built by order of the Prussian King Frederick William I according to plans by the architect Philipp Gerlach between 1730 and 1735, it was considered a major work of North German Baroque architecture. With a tower height of almost 90 metres, it was the tallest building in Potsdam and, together with St. Nicholas' and Holy Spirit Churches, dominated the cityscape in what was known as the 'Three-Churches-View' Towards the end of the Second World War, it was badly damaged by a British air raid in 1945 during the so-called Night of Potsdam and burnt out. The GDR government had the secured ruins blown up in 1968 in order to build the Potsdam Computer Centre on part of the site.

Supporters of rebuilding the church went public with the “'Call from Potsdam”' in 2004. As a result of their commitment, the controversially debated reconstruction as an open city church and international reconciliation centre has been underway since 2017. On Easter Monday 2024, the new Chapel of the Cross of Nails was opened in the rebuilt church tower. In August 2024, an exhibition on the history of the site and the viewing platform at a height of 57 metres were opened. The tower is still missing its spire, but construction will begin next to the tower in 2025 and the spire is due to be raised by 2027. The nave of the church will probably not be rebuilt as originally planned, instead there are discussions about an event centre or a hall for the town council meeting. The church tower is already the highest vantage point in Posdam, and the viewing terrace can be reached barrier-free.

The reconstruction of the tower was, and still is, highly controversial, mainly due to the so-called “Day of Potsdam” in 1933. The Nazis hoped to gain an absolute majority of votes in the Reichstag elections of 5 March 1933, which took place in a climate of legal uncertainty and violence. This was intended to force through the self-dissolution of parliament so that they could finally embark on the path to dictatorship. Following the Reichstag fire on the night of 27/28 February, the Reich Cabinet decided, at Hitler's suggestion, to move the opening of the Reichstag to Potsdam. With reference to the first Reichstag opening in 1871 by Emperor Wilhelm I in the White Hall of the Berlin Palace, 21 March was set as the date. The highlight of the celebrations was a state ceremony in the Garrison Church with Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler, the members of his government and the Reichstag deputies, with the exception of the SPD and KPD deputies, as well as invited guests from public life, business and the armed forces. The gathering thus resembled the reception of the new Reichstag deputies by the Kaiser, as had been the custom before 1918. The state ceremony in Potsdam, which was strongly characterised by military traditions, with speeches by Hindenburg and Hitler and a large military parade, was broadcast live on the radio throughout the Reich and staged by Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels as the Day of Potsdam. Hitler and Hindenburg's handshake in front of the Garrison Church was photographed and later stylised by Nazi propaganda as a symbolic handshake. The Nazis, who did not yet see their power consolidated, saw the act of state in the Garrison Church as an opportunity to stage a rapprochement between Hitler and Hindenburg and to present the still fierce division of the centre-right in the 1932 presidential election campaign as having been overcome. This historical event and the interpretation of the church as a symbol of Prussian militarism were probably the main reasons for the demolition of the rebuildable ruins in 1968 by the GDR authorities.

 

This text is mainly based on Wikipedia

   

God’s Work, God’s Disposition, and God Himself III

 

www.holyspiritspeaks.org/pictures/paintings-jesus/

 

"Although the Lord Jesus’ time of working in the flesh was full of hardships and suffering, through His appearance in His spiritual body of flesh and blood, He completely and perfectly accomplished His work of that time in the flesh to redeem mankind. He began His ministry by becoming flesh, and He concluded His ministry by appearing to mankind in His fleshly form. He heralded the Age of Grace, He began the Age of Grace through His identity as Christ. Through His identity as Christ, He carried out the work in the Age of Grace and He strengthened and led all of His followers in the Age of Grace. It can be said of God's work that He truly finishes what He starts. There are steps and a plan, and it is full of God’s wisdom, His omnipotence, and His marvelous deeds. It is also full of God’s love and mercy. Of course, the main thread running through all of God’s work is His care for mankind; it is permeated with His feelings of concern that He can never put aside" (Continuation of The Word Appears in the Flesh) .

  

A new portrait tribute of His Holiness Pope Leo XIV by London-based expressionist artist, Stephen B. Whatley.

 

Pope Leo is the 267th Head of The Catholic church & the first American-born Pope.

 

Stephen B. Whatley is a Catholic convert, a calling he felt through his spiritual search to survive early tragedy in his life; and in 2013, his exhibition, "Paintings From Prayer" was staged at London's Westminster Cathedral; which owns his portrait tribute of the late Pope Francis.

 

The artist gets what he humbly feels a 'Divine Push' to paint tributes of faith, alongside his other work - a large body of which is on public display every day in the City of London, just outside the Tower of London - where his series of 30 paintings commissioned by Historic Royal Palaces, 25 years ago, vibrantly chart the history of The Tower.

 

As a permanent art exhibit reproduced throughout the walkway leading from Tower Hill Station they form a bright and vibrant entrance to the Tower of London.

 

The work of Stephen B. Whatley is in collections worldwide & public collections which own his work include the BBC, London Transport Museum, and The Royal Collection of HM King Charles III.

 

Catholic institutions that have either acquired or commissioned the artist's paintings include The Carrollton School of The Sacred Heart, Miami, USA, The Institute of Marist Brothers, Canada, Newman University, Birmingham (UK), St Anthony Padua Catholic College, Sydney, Australia and the Duchesne Academy of The Sacred Heart in Texas, USA.

 

In 2004, the artist was presented to HM Queen Elizabeth II and HRH The Duke of Edinburgh in recognition of his work.

 

"My new portrait is a tribute to the peace & hope I pray that Pope Leo XIV brings to the world….painted with many prayers and dependence on the Holy Spirit.

 

His Holiness Pope Leo XIV. 2025

Oil on canvas

30 x 24in/ 76 x 61cm

www.stephenbwhatley.com

Visiting St Machars Cathedral today 12/5/2018, I noticed this beautiful Blossom Tree dominating the centre of the grave yard in amongst graves dating back hundreds of years , made me think life still goes on, no matter who has passed away, rank, position, fame , recognition, money etc does not matter, when its our time to fall asleep , the world will still turn and life will go on, forever.

 

Resurrection

 

Resurrection is the concept of coming back to life after death. In a number of ancient religions, a dying-and-rising god is a deity which dies and resurrects. The death and resurrection of Jesus, an example of resurrection, is the central focus of Christianity.

 

As a religious concept, it is used in two distinct respects: a belief in the resurrection of individual souls that is current and ongoing (Christian idealism, realized eschatology), or else a belief in a singular resurrection of the dead at the end of the world. The resurrection of the dead is a standard eschatological belief in the Abrahamic religions.

 

Some believe the soul is the actual vehicle by which people are resurrected.

Christian theological debate ensues with regard to what kind of resurrection is factual – either a spiritual resurrection with a spirit body into Heaven, or a material resurrection with a restored human body. While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to Heaven was in a material body, a very small minority believe it was spiritual.

 

There are documented rare cases of the return to life of the clinically dead which are classified scientifically as examples of the Lazarus syndrome, a term originating from the Biblical story of the Resurrection of Lazarus.

 

Etymology

Resurrection, from the Latin noun resurrectio -onis, from the verb rego, "to make straight, rule" + preposition sub, "under", altered to subrigo and contracted to surgo, surrexi, surrectum + preposition re-, "again", thus literally "a straightening from under again".

 

Religion

 

Ancient religions in the Near East

 

See also: Dying-and-rising god

The concept of resurrection is found in the writings of some ancient non-Abrahamic religions in the Middle East. A few extant Egyptian and Canaanite writings allude to dying and rising gods such as Osiris and Baal. Sir James Frazer in his book The Golden Bough relates to these dying and rising gods, but many of his examples, according to various scholars, distort the sources. Taking a more positive position, Tryggve Mettinger argues in his recent book that the category of rise and return to life is significant for the following deities: Ugaritic Baal, Melqart, Adonis, Eshmun, Osiris and Dumuzi.

 

Ancient Greek religion

 

In ancient Greek religion a number of men and women were made physically immortal as they were resurrected from the dead. Asclepius was killed by Zeus, only to be resurrected and transformed into a major deity. Achilles, after being killed, was snatched from his funeral pyre by his divine mother Thetis and resurrected, brought to an immortal existence in either Leuce, Elysian plains or the Islands of the Blessed. Memnon, who was killed by Achilles, seems to have received a similar fate. Alcmene, Castor, Heracles, and Melicertes, were also among the figures sometimes considered to have been resurrected to physical immortality. According to Herodotus's Histories, the seventh century BC sage Aristeas of Proconnesus was first found dead, after which his body disappeared from a locked room. Later he found not only to have been resurrected but to have gained immortality.

 

Many other figures, like a great part of those who fought in the Trojan and Theban wars, Menelaus, and the historical pugilist Cleomedes of Astupalaea, were also believed to have been made physically immortal, but without having died in the first place. Indeed, in Greek religion, immortality originally always included an eternal union of body and soul. The philosophical idea of an immortal soul was a later invention, which, although influential, never had a breakthrough in the Greek world. As may be witnessed even into the Christian era, not least by the complaints of various philosophers over popular beliefs, traditional Greek believers maintained the conviction that certain individuals were resurrected from the dead and made physically immortal and that for the rest of us, we could only look forward to an existence as disembodied and dead souls.

 

This traditional religious belief in physical immortality was generally denied by the Greek philosophers. Writing his Lives of Illustrious Men (Parallel Lives) in the first century CE, the Middle Platonic philosopher Plutarch's chapter on Romulus gave an account of the mysterious disappearance and subsequent deification of this first king of Rome, comparing it to traditional Greek beliefs such as the resurrection and physical immortalization of Alcmene and Aristeas the Proconnesian, "for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's work-shop, and his friends coming to look for him, found his body vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met him traveling towards Croton." Plutarch openly scorned such beliefs held in traditional ancient Greek religion, writing, "many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying creatures naturally mortal."

 

The parallel between these traditional beliefs and the later resurrection of Jesus was not lost on the early Christians, as Justin Martyr argued: "when we say ... Jesus Christ, our teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propose nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you consider sons of Zeus." (1 Apol. 21). There is, however, no belief in a general resurrection in ancient Greek religion, as the Greeks held that not even the gods were able to recreate flesh that had been lost to decay, fire or consumption.

 

The notion of a general resurrection of the dead was therefore apparently quite preposterous to the Greeks. This is made clear in Paul's Areopagus discourse. After having first told about the resurrection of Jesus, which makes the Athenians interested to hear more, Paul goes on, relating how this event relates to a general resurrection of the dead:

 

"Therefore having overlooked the times of ignorance, God is now declaring to men that all everywhere should repent, because He has fixed a day in which He will judge the world in righteousness through a Man whom He has appointed, having furnished proof to all men by raising Him from the dead." Now when they heard of the resurrection of the dead, some began to sneer, but others said, `We shall hear you again concerning this."

 

Christianity

 

Resurrection of Jesus

 

In Christianity, resurrection most critically concerns the Resurrection of Jesus, but also includes the resurrection of Judgment Day known as the Resurrection of the Dead by those Christians who subscribe to the Nicene Creed (which is the majority or Mainstream Christianity), as well as the resurrection miracles done by Jesus and the prophets of the Old Testament. Some churches distinguish between raising the dead (a resumption of mortal life) and a resurrection (the beginning of an immortal life).

 

Resurrection of Jesus

Christians regard the resurrection of Jesus as the central doctrine in Christianity. Others take the Incarnation of Jesus to be more central; however, it is the miracles – and particularly his Resurrection – which provide validation of his incarnation. According to Paul, the entire Christian faith hinges upon the centrality of the resurrection of Jesus and the hope for a life after death. The Apostle Paul wrote in his first letter to the Corinthians: If only for this life we have hope in Christ, we are to be pitied more than all men. But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep.

 

Resurrection

Miracles of Jesus § Resurrection of the dead

During the Ministry of Jesus on earth, before his death, Jesus commissioned his Twelve Apostles to, among other things, raise the dead. In the New Testament, Jesus is said to have raised several persons from death. These resurrections included the daughter of Jairus shortly after death, a young man in the midst of his own funeral procession, and Lazarus, who had been buried for four days. According to the Gospel of Matthew, after Jesus's resurrection, many of those previously dead came out of their tombs and entered Jerusalem, where they appeared to many.

 

Similar resurrections are credited to Christian apostles and saints. Peter allegedly raised a woman named Dorcas (called Tabitha), and Paul the Apostle revived a man named Eutychus who had fallen asleep and fell from a window to his death, according to the book of Acts. Proceeding the apostolic era, many saints were said to resurrect the dead, as recorded in Orthodox Christian hagiographies.[citation needed] St Columba supposedly raised a boy from the dead in the land of Picts .

 

Most Christians understand these miraculous resurrections to be of a different nature than the resurrection of Jesus and the future resurrection of the dead. The raising of Lazarus and others from the dead could also be called "resuscitations" or "reanimations", since the life given to them is presumably temporary in nature—there is no suggestion in the Bible or hagiographic traditions that these people became truly immortal. In contrast, the resurrection of Jesus and the future resurrection of the dead will abolish death once and for all (see Isaiah 25:8, 1 Corinthians 15:26, 2 Timothy 1:10, Revelation 21:4).

 

Resurrection of the Dead

 

Christianity started as a religious movement within 1st-century Judaism (late Second Temple Judaism), and it retains what the New Testament itself claims was the Pharisaic belief in the afterlife and Resurrection of the Dead. Whereas this belief was only one of many beliefs held about the World to Come in Second Temple Judaism, and was notably rejected by both the Sadducees and, according to Josephus, the Pharisees, this belief became dominant within Early Christianity and already in the Gospels of Luke and John included an insistence on the resurrection of the flesh. This was later rejected by gnostic teachings, which instead continued the Pauline insistence that flesh and bones had no place in heaven.

 

Most modern Christian churches continue to uphold the belief that there will be a final Resurrection of the Dead and World to Come, perhaps as prophesied by the Apostle Paul when he said: "...he hath appointed a day, in the which he will judge the world..." (Acts 17:31 KJV) and "...there shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the just and unjust." (Acts 24:15 KJV).

 

Belief in the Resurrection of the Dead, and Jesus's role as judge, is codified in the Apostles' Creed, which is the fundamental creed of Christian baptismal faith. The Book of Revelation also makes many references about the Day of Judgment when the dead will be raised up.

 

Difference From Platonic philosophy

In Platonic philosophy and other Greek philosophical thought, at death the soul was said to leave the inferior body behind. The idea that Jesus was resurrected spiritually rather than physically even gained popularity among some Christian teachers, whom the author of 1 John declared to be antichrists. Similar beliefs appeared in the early church as Gnosticism. However, in Luke 24:39, the resurrected Jesus expressly states "behold my hands and my feet, that it is I myself. Handle me and see, for a spirit does not have flesh and bones as you see I have."

 

Islam

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: ‫يوم القيامة‬‎‎) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.

 

Judaism and Samaritanism

There are three explicit examples in the Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead:

* The prophet Elijah prays and God raises a young boy from death (1 Kings 17:17-24)

* Elisha raises the son of the Shunammite woman (2 Kings 4:32-37); this was the very same child whose birth he previously foretold (2 Kings 4:8-16)

* A dead man's body that was thrown into the dead Elisha's tomb is resurrected when the body touches Elisha's bones (2 Kings 13:21)

 

During the period of the Second Temple, there developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection. The concept of resurrection of the physical body is found in 2 Maccabees, according to which it will happen through recreation of the flesh.[17] Resurrection of the dead also appears in detail in the extra-canonical books of Enoch,[18] in Apocalypse of Baruch, and 2 Esdras. According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism Philip R. Davies, there is “little or no clear reference … either to immortality or to resurrection from the dead” in the Dead Sea scrolls texts.

 

Both Josephus and the New Testament record that the Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife, but the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not. According to Josephus, who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only the soul was immortal and the souls of good people will be reincarnated and “pass into other bodies,” while “the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment.” Paul, who also was a Pharisee, said that at the resurrection what is "sown as a natural body is raised a spiritual body." Jubilees seems to refer to the resurrection of the soul only, or to a more general idea of an immortal soul.

 

According to Herbert C. Brichto, writing in Reform Judaism's Hebrew Union College Annual, the family tomb is the central concept in understanding biblical views of the afterlife. Brichto states that it is "not mere sentimental respect for the physical remains that is...the motivation for the practice, but rather an assumed connection between proper sepulture and the condition of happiness of the deceased in the afterlife".

 

According to Brichto, the early Israelites apparently believed that the graves of family, or tribe, united into one, and that this unified collectivity is to what the Biblical Hebrew term Sheol refers, the common Grave of humans. Although not well defined in the Tanakh, Sheol in this view was a subterranean underworld where the souls of the dead went after the body died. The Babylonians had a similar underworld called Aralu, and the Greeks had one known as Hades. For biblical references to Sheol see Genesis 42:38, Isaiah 14:11, Psalm 141:7, Daniel 12:2, Proverbs 7:27 and Job 10:21,22, and 17:16, among others. According to Brichto, other Biblical names for Sheol were: Abaddon (ruin), found in Psalm 88:11, Job 28:22 and Proverbs 15:11; Bor (the pit), found in Isaiah 14:15, 24:22, Ezekiel 26:20; and Shakhat (corruption), found in Isaiah 38:17, Ezekiel 28:8.

 

Zen Buddhism

There are stories in Buddhism where the power of resurrection was allegedly demonstrated in Chan or Zen tradition. One is the legend of Bodhidharma, the Indian master who brought the Ekayana school of India to China that subsequently became Chan Buddhism.

The other is the passing of Chinese Chan master Puhua (J., Fuke) and is recounted in the Record of Linji (J., Rinzai). Puhua was known for his unusual behavior and teaching style so it is no wonder that he is associated with an event that breaks the usual prohibition on displaying such powers. Here is the account from Irmgard Schloegl's "The Zen Teaching of Rinzai".

 

"One day at the street market Fuke was begging all and sundry to give him a robe. Everybody offered him one, but he did not want any of them. The master [Linji] made the superior buy a coffin, and when Fuke returned, said to him: "There, I had this robe made for you." Fuke shouldered the coffin, and went back to the street market, calling loudly: "Rinzai had this robe made for me! I am off to the East Gate to enter transformation" (to die)." The people of the market crowded after him, eager to look. Fuke said: "No, not today. Tomorrow, I shall go to the South Gate to enter transformation." And so for three days. Nobody believed it any longer. On the fourth day, and now without any spectators, Fuke went alone outside the city walls, and laid himself into the coffin. He asked a traveler who chanced by to nail down the lid.

 

The news spread at once, and the people of the market rushed there. On opening the coffin, they found that the body had vanished, but from high up in the sky they heard the ring of his hand bell."

 

Technological resurrection

Cryonics is the low-temperature preservation of humans who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future. Cryonics procedures ideally begin within minutes of cardiac arrest, and use cryoprotectants to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation.

 

However, the idea of cryonics also includes preservation of people long after death because of the possibility that brain encoding memory structure and personality may still persist or be inferable in the future. Whether sufficient brain information still exists for cryonics to successfully preserve may be intrinsically unprovable by present knowledge. Therefore, most proponents of cryonics see it as an intervention with prospects for success that vary widely depending on circumstances.

 

Russian Cosmist Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov advocated resurrection of the dead using scientific methods. Fedorov tried to plan specific actions for scientific research of the possibility of restoring life and making it infinite. His first project is connected with collecting and synthesizing decayed remains of dead based on "knowledge and control over all atoms and molecules of the world".

 

The second method described by Fedorov is genetic-hereditary. The revival could be done successively in the ancestral line: sons and daughters restore their fathers and mothers, they in turn restore their parents and so on. This means restoring the ancestors using the hereditary information that they passed on to their children. Using this genetic method it is only possible to create a genetic twin of the dead person. It is necessary to give back the revived person his old mind, his personality. Fedorov speculates about the idea of "radial images" that may contain the personalities of the people and survive after death. Nevertheless, Fedorov noted that even if a soul is destroyed after death, Man will learn to restore it whole by mastering the forces of decay and fragmentation.

 

In his 1994 book The Physics of Immortality, American physicist Frank J. Tipler, an expert on the general theory of relativity, presented his Omega Point Theory which outlines how a resurrection of the dead could take place at the end of the cosmos. He posits that humans will evolve into robots which will turn the entire cosmos into a supercomputer which will, shortly before the big crunch, perform the resurrection within its cyberspace, reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the supercomputer from the past light cone of the cosmos) as avatars within its metaverse.

 

David Deutsch, British physicist and pioneer in the field of quantum computing, agrees with Tipler's Omega Point cosmology and the idea of resurrecting deceased people with the help of quantum computer but he is critical of Tipler's theological views.

 

Italian physicist and computer scientist Giulio Prisco presents the idea of "quantum archaeology", "reconstructing the life, thoughts, memories, and feelings of any person in the past, up to any desired level of detail, and thus resurrecting the original person via 'copying to the future'".

 

In his book Mind Children, roboticist Hans Moravec proposed that a future supercomputer might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, this information can be in the form of memories, filmstrips, medical records, and DNA.

 

Ray Kurzweil, American inventor and futurist, believes that when his concept of singularity comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation.

 

In their science fiction novel The Light of Other Days, Sir Arthur Clarke and Stephen Baxter imagine a future civilization resurrecting the dead of past ages by reaching into the past, through micro wormholes and with nanorobots, to download full snapshots of brain states and memories.

 

Both the Church of Perpetual Life and the Terasem Movement consider themselves transreligions and advocate for the use of technology to indefinitely extend the human lifespan.

 

Zombies

A zombie (Haitian Creole: zonbi; North Mbundu: nzumbe) can be either a fictional undead monster or a person in an entranced state believed to be controlled by a bokor or wizard. These latter are the original zombies, occurring in the West African Vodun religion and its American offshoots Haitian Vodou and New Orleans Voodoo.

 

Zombies became a popular device in modern horror fiction, largely because of the success of George A. Romero's 1968 film Night of the Living Dead and they have appeared as plot devices in various books, films and in television shows. Zombie fiction is now a sizable subgenre of horror, usually describing a breakdown of civilization occurring when most of the population become flesh-eating zombies – a zombie apocalypse. The monsters are usually hungry for human flesh, often specifically brains. Sometimes they are victims of a fictional pandemic illness causing the dead to reanimate or the living to behave this way, but often no cause is given in the story.

 

Disappearances (as distinct from resurrection)

As knowledge of different religions has grown, so have claims of bodily disappearance of some religious and mythological figures. In ancient Greek religion, this was a way the gods made some physically immortal, including such figures as Cleitus, Ganymede, Menelaus, and Tithonus. After his death, Cycnus was changed into a swan and vanished. In his chapter on Romulus from Parallel Lives, Plutarch criticises the continuous belief in such disappearances, referring to the allegedly miraculous disappearance of the historical figures Romulus, Cleomedes of Astypalaea, and Croesus. In ancient times, Greek and Roman pagan similarities were explained by the early Christian writers, such as Justin Martyr, as the work of demons, with the intention of leading Christians astray.

 

In somewhat recent years it has been learned that Gesar, the Savior of Tibet, at the end, chants on a mountain top and his clothes fall empty to the ground. The body of the first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev, is said to have disappeared and flowers were left in place of his dead body.

 

Lord Raglan's Hero Pattern lists many religious figures whose bodies disappear, or have more than one sepulchre. B. Traven, author of The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, wrote that the Inca Virococha arrived at Cusco (in modern-day Peru) and the Pacific seacoast where he walked across the water and vanished.[46] It has been thought that teachings regarding the purity and incorruptibility of the hero's human body are linked to this phenomenon. Perhaps, this is also to deter the practice of disturbing and collecting the hero's remains. They are safely protected if they have disappeared.

 

The first such case mentioned in the Bible is that of Enoch (son of Jared, great-grandfather of Noah, and father of Methuselah). Enoch is said to have lived a life where he "walked with God", after which "he was not, for God took him" (Genesis 5:1–18).

 

In Deuteronomy (34:6) Moses is secretly buried. Elijah vanishes in a whirlwind 2 Kings (2:11). After hundreds of years these two earlier Biblical heroes suddenly reappear, and are seen walking with Jesus, then again vanish. Mark (9:2–8), Matthew (17:1–8) and Luke (9:28–33). The last time he is seen, Luke (24:51) alone tells of Jesus leaving his disciples by ascending into the sky.

  

St Machar's Cathedral (or, more formally, the Cathedral Church of St Machar) is a Church of Scotland church in Aberdeen, Scotland. It is located to the north of the city centre, in the former burgh of Old Aberdeen. Technically, St Machar's is no longer a cathedral but rather a high kirk, as it has not been the seat of a bishopsince 1690.

 

St Machar is said to have been a companion of St Columba on his journey to Iona. A fourteenth-century legend tells how God (or St Columba) told Machar to establish a church where a river bends into the shape of a bishop's crosier before flowing into the sea.

 

The River Don bends in this way just below where the Cathedral now stands. According to legend, St Machar founded a site of worship in Old Aberdeen in about 580. Machar's church was superseded by a Norman cathedral in 1131, shortly after David I transferred the See from Mortlach to Aberdeen.

 

Almost nothing of that original cathedral survives; a lozenge-decorated base for a capital supporting one of the architraves can be seen in the Charter Room in the present church.

 

After the execution of William Wallace in 1305, his body was cut up and sent to different corners of the country to warn other dissenters. His left quarter ended up in Aberdeen and is buried in the walls of the cathedral.

 

At the end of the thirteenth century Bishop Henry Cheyne decided to extend the church, but the work was interrupted by the Scottish Wars of Independence. Cheyne's progress included piers for an extended choir at the transept crossing. These pillars, with decorated capitals of red sandstone, are still visible at the east end of the present church.

 

Though worn by exposure to the elements after the collapse of the cathedral's central tower, these capitals are among the finest stone carvings of their date to survive in Scotland.

 

Bishop Alexander Kininmund II demolished the Norman cathedral in the late 14th century, and began the nave, including the granite columns and the towers at the western end. Bishop Henry Lichtoun completed the nave, the west front and the northern transept, and made a start on the central tower.

 

Bishop Ingram Lindsay completed the roof and the paving stones in the later part of the fifteenth century. Further work was done over the next fifty years by Thomas Spens, William Elphinstone and Gavin Dunbar; Dunbar is responsible for the heraldic ceiling and the two western spires.

 

The chancel was demolished in 1560 during the Scottish Reformation. The bells and lead from the roof were sent to be sold in Holland, but the ship sank near Girdle Ness.

 

The central tower and spire collapsed in 1688, in a storm, and this destroyed the choir and transepts. The west arch of the crossing was then filled in, and worship carried on in the nave only; the current church consists only of the nave and aisles of the earlier building.

 

The ruined transepts and crossing are under the care of Historic Scotland, and contain an important group of late medieval bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies. The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite. On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the 16th Century) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of Scotland.

 

The Cathedral is a fine example of a fortified kirk, with twin towers built in the fashion of fourteenth-century tower houses. Their walls have the strength to hold spiral staircases to the upper floors and battlements. The spires which presently crown the

 

Though worn by exposure to the elements after the collapse of the cathedral's central tower, these capitals are among the finest stone carvings of their date to survive in Scotland.

 

Bishop Alexander Kininmund II demolished the Norman cathedral in the late 14th century, and began the nave, including the granite columns and the towers at the western end. Bishop Henry Lichtoun completed the nave, the west front and the northern transept, and made a start on the central tower.

 

Bishop Ingram Lindsay completed the roof and the paving stones in the later part of the fifteenth century. Further work was done over the next fifty years by Thomas Spens, William Elphinstone and Gavin Dunbar; Dunbar is responsible for the heraldic ceiling and the two western spires.

 

The chancel was demolished in 1560 during the Scottish Reformation. The bells and lead from the roof were sent to be sold in Holland, but the ship sank near Girdle Ness.

 

The central tower and spire collapsed in 1688, in a storm, and this destroyed the choir and transepts. The west arch of the crossing was then filled in, and worship carried on in the nave only; the current church consists only of the nave and aisles of the earlier building.

 

The ruined transepts and crossing are under the care of Historic Scotland, and contain an important group of late medieval bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies. The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite. On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the 16th Century) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of Scotland.

 

Bishops Gavin Dunbar and Alexander Galloway built the western towers and installed the heraldic ceiling, featuring 48 coats of arms in three rows of sixteen. Among those shown are:

* Pope Leo X's coat of arms in the centre, followed in order of importance by those of the Scottish archbishops and bishops.

* the Prior of St Andrews, representing other Church orders.

* King's College, the westernmost shield.

* Henry VIII of England, James V of Scotland and multiple instances for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who was also King of Spain, Aragon, Navarre and Sicily at the time the ceiling was created.

* St Margaret of Scotland, possibly as a stand-in for Margaret Tudor, James V's mother, whose own arms would have been the marshalled arms of England and Scotland.

* the arms of Aberdeen and of the families Gordon, Lindsay, Hay and Keith.

 

The ceiling is set off by a frieze which starts at the north-west corner of the nave and lists the bishops of the see from Nechtan in 1131 to William Gordon at the Reformation in 1560. This is followed by the Scottish monarchs from Máel Coluim II to Mary, Queen of Scots.

 

Notable figures buried in the cathedral cemetery include the author J.J. Bell, Robert Brough, Gavin Dunbar, Robert Laws, a missionary to Malawi and William Ogilvie of Pittensear—the ‘rebel professor’.

 

There has been considerable investment in recent years in restoration work and the improvement of the display of historic artefacts at the Cathedral.

 

The battlements of the western towers, incomplete for several centuries, have been renewed to their original height and design, greatly improving the appearance of the exterior. Meanwhile, within the building, a number of important stone monuments have been displayed to advantage.

 

These include a possibly 7th-8th century cross-slab from Seaton (the only surviving evidence from Aberdeen of Christianity at such an early date); a rare 12th century sanctuary cross-head; and several well-preserved late medieval effigies of Cathedral clergy, valuable for their detailed representation of contemporary dress.

 

A notable modern addition to the Cathedral's artistic treasures is a carved wooden triptych commemorating John Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen (d. 1395), author of The Brus.

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

………………………………………….

  

Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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Vincent William van Gough a famous Dutch artist whose work often associated with Post-Impressionism and later transformed in to Expressionism. Vincent Van Gogh was one of the most important predecessors of modern painting. He created a great number of masterpiece paintings and drawings in just one decade devoted to art.

I know for sure that I have an instinct for colour, and that it will come to me more and more, that painting is in the very marrow of my bones.” A brief look at some historical examples of artistic geniuses and it is tempting to believe that there is something approaching madness in the creative spirit.

 

The artistic impulse permeates throughout history: from the “primitive” cave art of the Upper Palaeolithic through to the introduction of perspective and foreshortening during the Renaissance, rules which would later be subverted beyond recognition by the artists of modernity, who sought to express new ways of seeing and ushered in an era of visual experimentation. Either as creators or consumers, art remains ever-present in the modern world, both a vehicle for expressing our innermost thoughts and desires and a medium through which we can escape into new realities and emotions.

 

What is it that leads us to create art? Is there a psychological drive at work, a subconscious force which simmers away beneath the surface before emerging in an explosion of creativity? Is there an innermost essence to this process, something which embodies our propensity to express ourselves through art?

 

A brief look at some historical examples of artistic geniuses and it is tempting to believe that there is something approaching madness in the creative spirit; that art is intrinsically bound with insanity, great works of art functioning as a cathartic mechanism – something which both purges and purifies the spirit – without which the artist would be confined to the asylum. The fascination of the link between mental illness and creativity emerged in the late 19th century and remains with us to this day, where heightened creativity can be seen to correlate with states of mind such as hypomania – a state of mind today most commonly associated with bipolar disorder – where inspiration emerges from the fluctuations between euphoria and depression.

 

The Artist as an Outsider

Vincent van Gogh is perhaps the most celebrated example of the “mad artistic genius”, a man who was frequently cited by art historians as suffering from manic depression and who revealed through his letters to have questioned his own sanity. In and out of institutions for much of his adult life, the root cause of van Gogh’s mental state has been hotly debated, with porphyria, schizophrenia, tertiary syphilis, lead poisoning and addiction to absinthe among the possible explanations (Manet, Degas and Toulouse-Lautrec were among other artists with a fondness for absinthe, as were a number of writers during the late 19th century. German poet Rainer Maria Rilke once wrote, “He saw his glass of absinthe grow and grow until he felt himself in the centre of its opal light, weightless, completely dissolved in this strange atmosphere.” There is something to be said for the role played by mind-altering drugs in promoting the drive to create art).

 

Whatever the causes of van Gogh’s mental state, his work seems to reflect a fluctuation between normality and insanity, as if the swirls of colour function as a measure of his grip on reality. Van Gogh said himself, “It is only too true that a lot of artists are mentally ill – it’s a life which, to put it mildly, makes one an outsider. I’m all right when I completely immerse myself in work, but I’ll always remain half crazy.” He would eventually end his life by shooting himself in the chest in the field where he had recently painted Wheatfield with Crows, an image which seemed to presage his suicide.

 

Psychologist Carl Jung considered the psychological roots of artistic creation in the modern world in a number of essays and lectures collected in the book, The Spirit in Man, Art and Literature. How did we progress from our primitive state, in which Jung perceived art, science and religion coalescing in “the undifferentiated chaos of the magical mentality” to the cultural and artistic climate familiar in the modern world? In what manner does art – and its symbolic content – reflect the seemingly tumultuous psychological nature of the artist? Can the art be used to decode the artist?

 

The Creative Impulse

Jung believed that art itself had no inherent meaning, suggesting that perhaps it is like nature – something that simply “is”. But the creative process was something distinct, and Jung posited that works of art could be seen to arise out of much the same psychological conditions as a neurosis. Like all neuroses these conscious contents have an unconscious background which in their artistic manifestation often go beyond the individual and into something deeper and more broadly reflective of humankind. Jung offered the analogy that “personal causes have as much or as little to do with a work of art as the soil with the plant that springs from it.” True art is something “supra-personal”, a force which has “escaped from the limitations of the personal and has soared beyond the personal concerns of its creator.”

 

Jung concedes that not all art originates in this manner – art can derive from a deliberate process of conscious, careful consideration geared towards a specific expression in which the artist is at one with the creative process. But for Jung, fascination lay in the artist who obeyed alien impulses where the work appears to impose itself on the author; an external force wielding the artist like a marionette. This is the creative impulse, acting upon the conscious mind from a subconscious level – it guides the artist in a way which they cannot understand, regardless of the conviction they may have that it has originated within themselves.

 

For great artists, this impulse can be all-consuming. As Jung rightly observes, “The biographies of great artists make it abundantly clear that the creative urge is often so imperious that it battens onto their humanity and yokes everything to the service of the work, even at the cost of ordinary health and human happiness”. The biographies of the likes of Beethoven, Marcel Proust and many others are a testament to the creative process as “a living thing implanted in the human psyche.”

 

For Beethoven, composing was a compulsion, as his prodigious output testifies – indeed, gripped in the vice of depression later in life, not least on account of his profound deafness, his work arguably reaching its zenith with the sublime late string quartets. Proust too felt irresistibly compelled to write – consigned to his bed on account of increasing illness, he worked tirelessly for several years on his opus In Search of Lost Time, a labyrinthine novel which tackles the nebulous quality of memory and love and the absurdity of human nature; a dense yet hugely rewarding product of tireless obsession.

 

Speaking With A Thousand Voices

Jung believed that the autonomous nature of the creative impulse as something that operates outside of consciousness is reflected in the symbolic nature of art. Symbols are expressions of the unknown, intimating something beyond our powers of comprehension. Jung believed these were deeply rooted in history; primordial images from a sphere of unconscious mythology. The creative drive works on the artist so that these images are withdrawn from the collective unconscious and presents us with archetypal symbols. For Jung this was a truly powerful psychological phenomenon: “Whoever speaks in primordial images speaks with a thousand voices; he enthrals and overpowers, while at the same time he lifts the idea he is seeking to express out of the occasional and the transitory into the realm of the ever-enduring.”

 

Ultimately, Jung saw this process as one of great social significance, where conjured primordial images were “constantly at work educating the spirit of the age.” Visionary works of artistic expression become something transcendental, linking the unconscious and conscious, past and present. It is a force which operates beyond the rational and approaches the sublime and timeless – art which offers us “a revelation whose heights and depths are beyond our fathoming, or a vision of beauty which we can never put into words.”

 

Art, too, was a powerful tool for the individual to understand the nature of his or her subconsciousness. Jung frequently integrated it into his process of analytical psychology, encouraging his patients to draw and paint their dreams and use active imagination in which image and meaning were integrated, in order to unlock the symbolism at its core and come to terms with trauma and emotional distress. Jung was an artist himself and spent much of his life attempting to unify his understanding of spiritual and esoteric traditions – particularly Christianity, Gnosticism and alchemy – and his own unconscious into paintings and illustrations. While art and creativity as a method of therapy pre-date the work of Jung (indeed, they reside in the distant past of our shamanic origins), his contribution to function of art as therapy in the modern age is indisputable.

 

The art historian John E. Pfieffer said of hunter-gatherer cave art in his book The Creative Explosion:

 

“Nothing in the twentieth century can match the Upper Palaeolithic for its combination of art and setting, content and context. Nowhere in our lives are there comparable concentrations of modern art with a purpose, art in action, as contrasted with passive art hung in out-of-the-mainstream places designed solely for exhibition. The works in caves speak together, individual styles but with an underlying unity, singing in unison like a chorus of individual voices expressing collective feelings, collective goals. That is their special power.”

 

In this sense, contemporary art cannot truly be measured alongside art from the past – it resides in a different era, inspired by and reflecting the spirit of the times. If shamanic cave art can be seen to represent the emergence of a new type of consciousness in humanity intimately tied to the birth of spirituality, art today can be viewed as a coalescence of all that has come since and is yet to come. Or, as Jung expressed it: “All art intuitively apprehends coming changes in the collective unconsciousness.”

 

That is both the beauty of art, and the power of the artist.

 

Van Gogh used color for its “symbolic and expressive values” rather than to reproduce light and literal surroundings. Van Gogh’s emotional state highly affected his artistic work and it deeply analyses his unconscious mind.

 

Several psychodynamic factors may have contributed to his art work. The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud viewed art as a privileged form of neurosis where the analyst-critic explores the artwork in order to understand and unearth the vicissitudes of the creator's psychological motivations. In this context van Gough’s art represent a deep psychological sketch. He left a profound, soul-searching description of his jagged life in his art work. Though Van Gogh had little financial success as an artist during his lifetime and often lived in poverty, his fame grew dramatically after his death. Today van Gough’s name is considered to be one of the world’s most renowned, respected, and influential artists. But he could not live long enough to see his fame. His life was filled with misery and desolation and this suffering was painted in an artistic way. The tragic life of Vincent van Gogh could be summarized emphasizing his early departure from formal education, failure as a successful salesman in the art world, attempt at religious studies, difficulty with female and family relationships, return to the art world, and tendencies toward extremes of poor nutrition or near self-starvation and excessive drinking and smoking. His oil painting” the Potato Eaters” clandestinely depicts poverty and destitute experienced by the artist. Van Gogh suffered from complex psychiatric ailments. Apart from the illness excessive use of tobacco and alcohol made a negative impact on his mental health. The mental illness that plagued him affected his art work. Van Gough painted his anguish and despair on canvas. His brushwork became increasingly agitated. The striking colors, crude brush strokes, and distorted shapes and contours, express his disturbed mind. He suffered two distinct episodes of reactive depression, and there are clearly bipolar aspects to his history. Both episodes of depression were followed by sustained periods of increasingly high energy and enthusiasm.z_p29-Psychological-03.jpg

 

Van Gogh's inimitable art was defined by its powerful, dramatic and emotional style. The artist’s concern for human suffering is in somber, melancholy study of art. Maybe he tried to explain the struggle between the man and the human nature, the reality and his unconscious mental conflicts. Van Gogh once said: “We spend our whole lives in unconscious exercise of the art of expressing our thoughts with the help of words.” His life was full of mental conflicts. He fought with his inner mind. This dual nature was observable. He had attacks of melancholy and of atrocious remorse. His colors lost the intensity His lines became restless. He applied the paint more violently with thicker layers. Van Gogh was drawn to objects in nature under stress: whirling suns, twisted cypress trees, and surging mountains. Although van Gogh’s illness emerged more violently he produced brilliant works as The Reaper, Cypresses, The Red Vineyard, and his famed Starry Night.

 

In Starry Night (1889) the whole world seems engulfed by circular movements. The Starry Night is undoubtedly van Gogh’s most mysterious picture. The Starry Night which resides as his most popular work and one of the most influence pieces in history. The swirling lines of the sky are a possible representation of his mental state. The Starry Night embodies an inner, subjective expression of van Gogh's response to nature. Vincent van Gogh once said “Looking at the stars always makes me dream. We take death to reach a star.”

 

From the beginning of Van Gogh's artistic career he had the ambition to draw and paint figures. For Vincent van Gogh color was the chief symbol of expression. Contemporary artists admired van Gogh’s passionate approach to art. But he viewed his life as horribly wasted, personally failed and impossible. On the contrary he was able to produce deeply moving images while living a life of ultimate desperation in an increasing state of mental imbalance. He was friendly with the French Post-Impressionist artist Paul Gauguin and two friends inspired each other. However they frequently quarreled. Van Gogh had an eccentric personality and unstable moods. His reactive depression episodes were followed by a prolonged period of hypomanic or even manic behavior. The life and artistic legacy of Vincent van Gogh has generated great interest among physicians from different areas of specialization in proposing a retrospective differential diagnosis. Vincent Van Gough suffered from medical crises that were devastating, but in the intervening periods he was both lucid and creative. Vincent van Gogh's illness has been the object of much speculation. Explanations as disparate as acute intermittent porphyria, epilepsy and schizophrenia have been proposed. Some experts suspect physical and psychiatric symptoms of Vincent van Gogh may have been due to chronic lead poisoning. According to Arnold (2004) an inherited metabolic disease, acute intermittent porphyria, accounts for all of the signs and symptoms of van Gogh's underlying illness. Porphyria is a rare hereditary disease in which the blood pigment hemoglobin is abnormally metabolized. Porphyrins are excreted in the urine, which becomes dark; other symptoms include mental disturbances and extreme sensitivity of the skin to light. Van Gogh probably suffered from partial complex seizures (temporal lobe epilepsy) with manic depressive mood swings aggravated by absinthe, brandy, nicotine and turpentine. In addition he was troubled by intense death wish. Suicidal gestures by Vincent depicted in his last paintings. He painted vast fields of wheat under dark and stormy skies, commenting, “It is not difficult to express here my entire sadness and extreme loneliness”. In one of his last paintings, Wheat Field With Crows, the black birds fly in a starless sky, and three paths lead nowhere. It could be interpreted as the emptiness that existed in his heart. Mehlum (1996) believes that an early childhood trauma initiated a life-long suicidal process in Van Gogh. His difficulties as regards attachment to and separation from his parents continued throughout his life and his emotional instability, intensity and lowered tolerance to frustration seem to portray a borderline personality. Van Gogh's self-portraits play significant clinical importance. Vincent van Gogh was born one year to the day after a stillborn brother of the identical name, including the middle name, Willem. In the parish register van Gogh was given the same number twenty-nine as his predecessor brother. Van Gogh's fantasies of death and rebirth, of being a double and a twin, contributed to both his psychopathology and his creativity. Van Gogh's self-portraits are regarded as relevant to his being a replacement child (Blum, 2009). Meissner (1993) hypothesized that the self-portraits of Vincent van Gogh are seen as repeated and unresolved efforts at self-exploration and self-definition in an attempt to add a sense of continuity and cohesion to a fragile and fragmented self-experience. The portraits are painted in mirror perspective; Vincent's search for identity is thus seen as mediated by the dynamics of the mirroring phenomenon.

Auto-mutilation became a part of his medical history. In 1888 Vincent’s mental health was very unstable. As a result of psychotic crises, Vincent van Gogh was hospitalized several times. His state of mind was very weak and during a breakdown, he mutilated his ear. Van Gogh cut off the lower half of his left ear and gave it to a prostitute. After a few weeks he was able to paint self-portrait with bandaged ear and pipe (Portrait of a one-eyed man) which shows him in serene composure. During the last few years of his life, his paintings were characterized by halos and the color yellow. Critics have ascribed these aberrations to innumerable causes, including chronic solar injury, glaucoma, and cataracts (Lee, 1981).

 

Vincent van Gogh's chronic suicidal ideation and behaviour led to a series of crises throughout his life, escalating during the last 18 months before his suicide in 1890. It is possible to identify at least three prominent suicidal motives in van Gogh's case. The first is unbearable emotional pain related to personal experience of loss which reactivated the childhood trauma. The second is introverted murderous rage arising from conflicts with other persons. The third motive described is the need for a cathartic release of energy and emotion (Mehlum, 1996).

 

Pezenhoffer and Gerevich (2015) found distal suicide risk factors in Vincent van Gogh. They highlighted: family anamnesis, childhood traumas (emotional deprivation, identity problems associated with the name Vincent), a vagrant, homeless way of life, and failures in relationships with women, and psychotic episodes appearing in rushes. In addition the proximal factors included the tragic friendship with Gauguin (frustrated love), his brother Theo's marriage (experienced as a loss), and a tendency to self-destruction and this trait aggression played an important role in Van Gogh's suicide.

 

Vincent van Gogh committed suicide in 1890 at the age of 37. Despite the mental illness he suffered Vincent remained marvelously creative until his death. Although he lived a relatively short period he left behind an astonishing body of work which included several hundred paintings.

 

Van Gogh's painting not only reflected his struggles but also enabled him, for a time, to stave off the hopelessness and despair that eventually overwhelmed him, culminating in his suicide. Despite his turbulent life Van Gogh remains as one of Europe's greatest artists. Vincent Van Gogh is the subject of psychologists, artists, and historians alike. His life was led with a furious passion which normal men could not begin to comprehend; and it is through his paintings that we can look into Van Gogh’s mind and soul to analyze this enigmatic figure.

 

Of all of his paintings there are two that stand out as a shining example of the multitude of feelings and personalities that Vincent possessed, these paintings allow us psychoanalytic interpretations of the motives behind the pieces.The two paintings are none other than The Potato Eaters from Vincent’s Neuen Period and The Night Cafe from Vincent’s stay in Arles while with Paul Gaughin.Each offers a different insight to Vincent’s psyche from his emotions towards his parents to how he fell about his friends and himself as a painter.The first of the aforementioned paintings, The Potato Eaters, is a great example of a work by Vincent which features personal identification with one of the figures where we can garner insight to his thought processes and emotions.The Potato Eaters was painted during the Neuen period, a time in which Vincent was painting the hard, dreary lives of peasants and the destitute.At a glance we can see the painting as nothing more than a very poignant and hard hitting representation of the hard life of the working class.Potatoes were a staple, easy to grow food introduced by the Americas and because of its cheap price and nigh nutritional value, it became the centerpiece of any lower class meal.The scene depicts five peasants sitting at a table eating potato stew one of which is turned away from the viewer but is illuminated by the steam of the stew to place her as the point of interest in the piece.

 

When digging a little deeper into the piece we find that the painting has remarkable similarities in relation to the early stages of Vincent’s life.The child in the foreground whom is illuminated by the halo of steam can be seen as a religious figure by reasoning that Vincent who was familiar with the Bible and Christian influence paintings would have known that halos around humans signified some sort of religious importance.We find that “the lamp [in the painting] becomes a Holy Spirit as the insistent orthogonals of the roof beamsâ€[1] point towards the lamp giving it even more prominence in the picture.Even beyond the eerie religious overtones which would have come from the influence of his minister father, we find more personal identifications in the painting.The hidden child in the foreground becomes a symbol for the dead Vincent whom Van Gogh would have placed the ideals of perfection upon.The child cannot face the viewer because the child is dead (in spirit) and this is reinforced by the woman on the right who stares at the child intensely while pointing down towards the grave. Our attention is now on the woman to the far right who is a representation of Vincent’s mother who spent the majority of Van Gogh’s childhood mourning the death of the first Vincent instead of giving tender love to Van Gogh.What is interesting is that not only does she cast her view away from the manin the center who is trying to get her attention, she takes her gaze away from you (the viewer) and places all of her attention on the child with its back to us.The man trying to get her attention has some of Van Gogh’s features and serves as a representation of the emotional state of his childhood and a large portion of his life.The man tries to garner the attention of the woman but finds that no matter how hard he tries, his efforts are ignored as the woman pays more attention to the illuminated child; this in turn fills the expression of the young man with surprise and despair.We can now look to the second painting, The Night Cafe, a painting in which we find conscious and unconscious meanings and symbols in elements like the pool table, the cafe owner, the lamp lights, and the overall color scheme of the painting. The first element, the pool table falls in line with Vincent’s tendency to insert phallic objects into his work; the pool stick has a pair of pool balls on either side of the bottom of its shaft which gives it the appearance of a phallus and testicles. What is interesting here is that if one follows the diagonals of the wooden floorboards and the direction the phallus is pointing in, it leads you towards the wide gaping hole in the back of the room which suggests the female vagina. What’s more is that the diagonals of the floorboards form a “headlong dive into space creates a powerful and expressionistic effect. It becomes the visual equivalent of an irresistible urge and corresponds to the pull of the “terrible passions” that make care dwellers want to ruin themselves”[2]. Our gaze is then led towards the group in the back of the room; this group seems to be a pair of men and a woman, or two women and a man. Regardless of the ratio of men to women in the back of the room, the men portray the typical cafe going drunks while the women represent the prostitutes that would frequent cafes for customers. The colors are particularly jarring in that the reds and greens, though complimentary of one another provide a very manic mood despite a relatively laid back seen. Vincent would have been going through manic fits while he and Gauguin worked together in Arles mainly due to their personalities conflicting with each others. Vincent outweighs this representation of his manic side by writing to his brother Theo about the painting and describing it as such: “I have tried to express the idea that the cafe is a place where one can ruin oneself, go crazy, or commit a crime..and all this in an atmosphere like a devil’s furnace of pale sulfate[3. ]Despite this description it is not hard to see how the radiating lamps which resemble explosions of light can serve as a representation of Van Gogh’s emotional state. The final element of the painting, the mysterious and ghostly figure of the cafe proprietor Joseph Ginoux becomes an unconscious symbol of Vincent’s deceased father.The figure is the only one in the room that addresses the viewer directly and seems to have complete control over every event happening within the Night Cafe.To further this idea that the ghostly figure is Vincent’s father, we need only look at the pool stick and pool balls which fall on a parallel plane to the owner’s waist giving the idea that he is the one with the largest phallus in the room.Vincent often felt as if he were beneath his father and often depicts him as having symbols of strong manliness.One of his paintings features his father as a large open Bible with a large, thick, candle at the bottom of the open book pointed upwards while the representation of Vincent in that painting is merely a pair of small, yellow books.We can summarize that Vincent found hints of fatherhood in Joseph Ginoux which reminded him of his childhood where he constantly battled his father over religious ideology and artistic aspirations.Both The Potato Eaters and The Night Cafe serve as perfect examples of how artists allow both directly and indirectly, psychoanalytical interpretations of their work.

   

[1] “Van Gogh and Gauguin: Electric Arguments and Utopian Dreams” Bradley Collins.Page 33.

 

[2] “Van Gogh and Gauguin: Electric Arguments and Utopian Dreams” Bradley Collins.Page 125

 

[3] “Van Gogh and Gauguin: Electric Arguments and Utopian Dreams” Bradley Collins.Page 136

 

highexistence.com/carl-jung-artistic-impulse/

Heidelberg - Heidelberger Schloss

 

Heidelberg Castle (German: Heidelberger Schloss) is a ruin in Germany and landmark of Heidelberg. The castle ruins are among the most important Renaissance structures north of the Alps.

 

The castle has only been partially rebuilt since its demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is located 80 metres (260 ft) up the northern part of the Königstuhl hillside, and thereby dominates the view of the old downtown. It is served by an intermediate station on the Heidelberger Bergbahn funicular railway that runs from Heidelberg's Kornmarkt to the summit of the Königstuhl.

 

The earliest castle structure was built before 1214 and later expanded into two castles circa 1294; however, in 1537, a lightning bolt destroyed the upper castle. The present structures had been expanded by 1650, before damage by later wars and fires. In 1764, another lightning bolt caused a fire which destroyed some rebuilt sections.

 

Before destruction

 

Early history

 

Heidelberg was first mentioned in 1196 as "Heidelberch". In 1155 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was made the Count Palatine by his half-brother Frederick Barbarossa, and the region became known as the Electoral Palatinate. The claim that Conrad's main residence was on the Schlossberg (Castle Hill), known as the Jettenbühl, cannot be substantiated. The name "Jettenbühl" comes from the soothsayer Jetta, who was said to have lived there. She is also associated with Wolfsbrunnen (Wolf's Spring) and the Heidenloch (Heathens' Well). The first mention of a castle in Heidelberg (Latin: "castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri") is in 1214, when Louis I, Duke of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach received it from Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II. The last mention of a single castle is in 1294. In another document from 1303, two castles are mentioned for the first time:

 

The upper castle on Kleiner Gaisberg Mountain, near today's Hotel Molkenkur (destroyed in 1537);

The lower castle on the Jettenbühl (the present castle site).

 

All that is known about the founding of the lower castle is that it took place sometime between 1294 and 1303. The oldest documented references to Heidelberg Castle are found during the 1600s:

 

The Thesaurus Pictuarum of the Palatinate church counsel Markus zum Lamb (1559 to 1606);

The "Annales Academici Heidelbergenses" by the Heidelberg librarian and professor Pithopoeus (started in 1587);

The "Originum Palatinarum Commentarius" by Marquard Freher (1599);

The "Teutsche Reyssebuch" by Martin Zeiller (Strasbourg 1632, reprinted in 1674 as the "Itinerarium Germaniae").

 

All of these works are for the most part superficial and do not contain much information. In 1615, Merian's Topographia Palatinatus Rheni described Prince Elector Ludwig V as he "started building a new castle one hundred and more years ago". Most of the descriptions of the castle up until the 18th century are based on Merian's information. Under Ruprecht I, the court chapel was erected on the Jettenbühl.

 

Palace of kings

 

When Ruprecht became the King of Germany in 1401, the castle was so small that on his return from his coronation, he had to camp out in the Augustinians' monastery, on the site of today's University Square. What he desired was more space for his entourage and court and to impress his guests, but also additional defences to turn the castle into a fortress.

 

After Ruprecht's death in 1410, his land was divided between his four sons. The Palatinate, the heart of his territories, was given to the eldest son, Ludwig III. Ludwig was the representative of the emperor and the supreme judge, and it was in this capacity that he, after the Council of Constance in 1415 and at the behest of Emperor Sigismund, held the deposed Antipope John XXIII in custody before he was taken to Burg Eichelsheim (today Mannheim-Lindenhof).

 

On a visit to Heidelberg in 1838, the French author Victor Hugo took particular pleasure in strolling among the ruins of the castle. He summarised its history in this letter:

 

But let me talk of its castle. (This is absolutely essential, and I should actually have begun with it.) What times it has been through! Five hundred years long it has been victim to everything that has shaken Europe, and now it has collapsed under its weight. That is because this Heidelberg Castle, the residence of the counts Palatine, who were answerable only to kings, emperors, and popes, and was of too much significance to bend to their whims, but couldn't raise his head without coming into conflict with them, and that is because, in my opinion, that the Heidelberg Castle has always taken up some position of opposition towards the powerful. Circa 1300, the time of its founding, it starts with a Thebes analogy; in Count Rudolf and Emperor Ludwig, these degenerate brothers, it has its Eteocles and its Polynices [warring sons of Oedipus]. Then the prince elector begins to grow in power. In 1400 the Palatine Ruprecht II, supported by three Rhenish prince electors, deposes Emperor Wenceslaus and usurps his position; 120 years later in 1519, Count Palatine Frederick II was to create the young King Charles I of Spain Emperor Charles V.

 

Reformation and the Thirty Years Wars

 

It was during the reign of Louis V, Elector Palatine (1508–1544) that Martin Luther came to Heidelberg to defend one of his theses (Heidelberg Disputation) and paid a visit to the castle. He was shown around by Louis's younger brother, Wolfgang, Count Palatine, and in a letter to his friend George Spalatin praises the castle's beauty and its defenses.

 

In 1619, Protestants rebelling against the Holy Roman Empire offered the crown of Bohemia to Frederick V, Elector Palatine who accepted despite misgivings and in doing so triggered the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. It was during the Thirty Years War that arms were raised against the castle for the first time. This period marks the end of the castle's construction; the centuries to follow brought with them destruction and rebuilding.

 

Destruction

 

After his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620, Frederick V was on the run as an outlaw and had to release his troops prematurely, leaving the Palatinate undefended against General Tilly, the supreme commander of the Imperial and Holy Roman Empire's troops. On 26 August 1622, Tilly commenced his attack on Heidelberg, taking the town on 16 September, and the castle a few days later.

 

When the Swedes captured Heidelberg on 5 May 1633 and opened fire on the castle from the Königstuhl hill behind it, Tilly handed over the castle. The following year, the emperor's troops tried to recapture the castle, but it was not until July 1635 that they succeeded. It remained in their possession until the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years War was signed. The new ruler, Charles Louis (Karl Ludwig) and his family did not move into the ruined castle until 7 October 1649.

 

Victor Hugo summarized these and the following events:

 

In 1619, Frederick V, then a young man, took the crown of the kings of Bohemia, against the will of the emperor, and in 1687, Philip William, Count Palatine, by then an old man, assumes the title of prince-elector, against the will of the king of France. This was to cause Heidelberg battles and never-ending tribuluations, the Thirty Years War, Gustav Adolfs Ruhmesblatt and finally the War of the Grand Alliance, the Turennes mission. All of these terrible events have blighted the castle. Three emperors, Louis the Bavarian, Adolf of Nassau, and Leopold of Austria, have laid siege to it; Pio II condemned it; Louis XIV wreaked havoc on it.

— quoted from Victor Hugo: "Heidelberg"

 

Nine Years' War

 

After the death of Charles II, Elector Palatine, the last in line of the House of Palatinate-Simmern, Louis XIV of France demanded the surrender of the allodial title in favor of the Duchess of Orléans, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine who he claimed was the rightful heir to the Simmern lands. On 29 September 1688, the French troops marched into the Palatinate of the Rhine and on 24 October moved into Heidelberg, which had been deserted by Philipp Wilhelm, the new Elector Palatine from the line of Palatinate-Neuburg. At war against the allied European powers, France's war council decided to destroy all fortifications and to lay waste to the Palatinate (Brûlez le Palatinat!), in order to prevent an enemy attack from this area. As the French withdrew from the castle on 2 March 1689, they set fire to it and blew the front off the Fat Tower. Portions of the town were also burned, but the mercy of a French general, René de Froulay de Tessé, who told the townspeople to set small fires in their homes to create smoke and the illusion of widespread burning, prevented wider destruction.

 

Immediately upon his accession in 1690, Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine had the walls and towers rebuilt. When the French again reached the gates of Heidelberg in 1691 and 1692, the town's defenses were so good that they did not gain entry. On 18 May 1693 the French were yet again at the town's gates and took it on 22 May. However, they did not attain control of the castle and destroyed the town in attempt to weaken the castle's main support base. The castle's occupants capitulated the next day. Now the French took the opportunity to finish off the work started in 1689, after their hurried exit from the town. The towers and walls that had survived the last wave of destruction, were blown up with mines.

 

Removal of the court to Mannheim

 

In 1697 the Treaty of Ryswick was signed, marking the end of the War of the Grand Alliance and finally bringing peace to the town. Plans were made to pull down the castle and to reuse parts of it for a new palace in the valley. When difficulties with this plan became apparent, the castle was patched up. At the same time, Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine played with the idea of completely redesigning the castle, but shelved the project due to lack of funds. He did, however, install his favorite court jester, Perkeo of Heidelberg to famously watch over the castle's wine stock. Perkeo later became the unofficial mascot of the city. In 1720, he came into conflict with the town's Protestants as a result of fully handing over the Church of the Holy Spirit to the Catholics (it had previously been split by a partition and used by both congregations), the Catholic prince-elector moved his court to Mannheim and lost all interest in the castle. When on 12 April 1720, Charles announced the removal of the court and all its administrative bodies to Mannheim, he wished that "Grass may grow on her streets".

 

The religious conflict was probably only one reason for the move to Mannheim. In addition, converting the old-fashioned hill-top castle into a Baroque palace would have been difficult and costly. By moving down into the plain, the prince-elector was able to construct a new palace, Mannheim Palace, that met his every wish.

 

Karl Phillip's successor Karl Theodor planned to move his court back to Heidelberg Castle. However, on 24 June 1764, lightning struck the Saalbau (court building) twice in a row, again setting the castle on fire, which he regarded as a sign from heaven and changed his plans. Victor Hugo, who had come to love the ruins of the castle, also saw it as a divine signal:

 

One could even say that the very heavens had intervened. On 23 June 1764, the day before Karl Theodor was to move into the castle and make it his seat (which, by the bye, would have been a great disaster, for if Karl Theodor had spent his thirty years there, these austere ruins which we today so admire would certainly have been decorated in the pompadour style); on this day, then, with the prince's furnishings already arrived and waiting in the Church of the Holy Spirit, fire from heaven hit the octagonal tower, set light to the roof, and destroyed this five-hundred-year-old castle in very few hours.

— Victor Hugo, Heidelberg

 

In the following decades, basic repairs were made, but Heidelberg Castle remained essentially a ruin.

 

Since destruction

 

Slow decay and Romantic enthusiasm

 

In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria in addition to the Palatinate and removed his court from Mannheim to Munich. Heidelberg Castle receded even further from his thoughts and the rooms which had still had roofs were taken over by craftsmen. Even as early as 1767, the south wall was quarried for stone to build Schwetzingen Castle. In 1784, the vaults in the Ottoheinrich wing were filled in, and the castle used as a source of building materials.

 

As a result of the German mediatisation of 1803, Heidelberg and Mannheim became part of Baden. Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden welcomed the addition to his territory, although he regarded Heidelberg Castle as an unwanted addition. The structure was decaying and the townsfolk were helping themselves to stone, wood, and iron from the castle to build their own houses. The statuary and ornaments were also fair game. August von Kotzebue expressed his indignation in 1803 at the government of Baden's intention to pull down the ruins. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ruined castle had become a symbol for the patriotic movement against Napoleon.

 

Even before 1800, artists had come to see the river, the hills and the ruins of the castle as an ideal ensemble. The best depictions are those of England's J. M. W. Turner, who stayed in Heidelberg several times between 1817 and 1844, and painted Heidelberg and the castle many times. He and his fellow Romantic painters were not interested in faithful portrayals of the building and gave artistic licence free rein. For example, Turner's paintings of the castle show it perched far higher up on the hill than it actually is.

 

The saviour of the castle was the French count Charles de Graimberg. He fought the government of Baden, which viewed the castle as an "old ruin with a multitude of tasteless, crumbling ornaments", for the preservation of the building. Until 1822, he served as a voluntary castle warden, and lived for a while in the Glass Wing (Gläserner Saalbau), where he could keep an eye on the courtyard. Long before the origin of historic preservation in Germany, he was the first person to take an interest in the conservation and documentation of the castle, which may never have occurred to any of the Romantics. Graimberg asked Thomas A. Leger to prepare the first castle guide. With his pictures of the castle, of which many copies were produced, Graimberg promoted the castle ruins and drew many tourists to the town.

 

Planning and restoration

 

The question of whether the castle should be completely restored was discussed for a long time. In 1868, the poet Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter argued for a complete reconstruction, leading to a strong backlash in public meetings and in the press.

 

In 1883, the Grand Duchy of Baden established a "Castle field office", supervised by building director Josef Durm in Karlsruhe, district building supervisor Julius Koch and architect Fritz Seitz. The office made a detailed plan for preserving or repairing the main building. They completed their work in 1890, which led a commission of specialists from across Germany to decide that while a complete or partial rebuilding of the castle was not possible, it was possible to preserve it in its current condition. Only the Friedrich Building, whose interiors were fire damaged, but not ruined, would be restored. This reconstruction was done from 1897 to 1900 by Karl Schäfer at the enormous cost of 520,000 Marks.

 

Castle ruins and tourism

 

The oldest description of Heidelberg from 1465 mentions that the city is "frequented by strangers", but it did not really become a tourist attraction until the beginning of the 19th century. Count Graimberg made the castle a pervasive subject for pictures which became forerunners of the postcard. At the same time, the castle was also found on souvenir cups. Tourism received a big boost when Heidelberg was connected to the railway network in 1840.

 

Mark Twain, the American author, described the Heidelberg Castle in his 1880 travel book A Tramp Abroad:

 

A ruin must be rightly situated, to be effective. This one could not have been better placed. It stands upon a commanding elevation, it is buried in green woods, there is no level ground about it, but, on the contrary, there are wooded terraces upon terraces, and one looks down through shining leaves into profound chasms and abysses where twilight reigns and the sun cannot intrude. Nature knows how to garnish a ruin to get the best effect. One of these old towers is split down the middle, and one half has tumbled aside. It tumbled in such a way as to establish itself in a picturesque attitude. Then all it lacked was a fitting drapery, and Nature has furnished that; she has robed the rugged mass in flowers and verdure, and made it a charm to the eye. The standing half exposes its arched and cavernous rooms to you, like open, toothless mouths; there, too, the vines and flowers have done their work of grace. The rear portion of the tower has not been neglected, either, but is clothed with a clinging garment of polished ivy which hides the wounds and stains of time. Even the top is not left bare, but is crowned with a flourishing group of trees & shrubs. Misfortune has done for this old tower what it has done for the human character sometimes – improved it.

— Mark Twain

 

In the 20th century, Americans spread Heidelberg's reputation outside Europe. Thus, Japanese also often visit the Heidelberg Castle during their trips to Europe. Heidelberg has, at the beginning of the 21st century, more than three million visitors a year and about 1,000,000 overnight stays. Most of the foreign visitors come either from the USA or Japan. The most important attraction, according to surveys by the Geographical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, is the castle with its observation terraces.

 

Chronology

 

Timeline of events for Heidelberg Castle:

 

1225: first documented mention as "Castrum".

1303: mention of two castles.

1537: destruction of the upper castle by lightning bolt.

1610: creation of the palace garden ("Hortus Palatinus").

1622: Tilly conquers city and castle in the Thirty Years War.

1642: renewal of the Castle plants.

1688/1689: destruction by French troops.

1693: renewed destruction in the Palatinate succession war.

1697: (start) reconstruction.

1720: transfer of the residence to Mannheim.

1742: (start) reconstruction.

1764: destruction by lightning bolt.

1810: Charles de Graimberg dedicates himself to the preservation of the Castle ruins.

1860: first Castle lighting.

1883: establishment of the "office of building of castles of Baden."

1890: stocktaking by Julius Koch and Fritz Seitz.

1900: (circa) restorations and historical development.

 

(Wikipedi)

 

Das Heidelberger Schloss ist eine der berühmtesten Ruinen Deutschlands und das Wahrzeichen der Stadt Heidelberg. Bis zu seiner Zerstörung im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg war es die Residenz der Kurfürsten von der Pfalz. Seit den Zerstörungen durch die Soldaten Ludwigs XIV. 1689 und der Sprengung durch französische Pioniere am 6. September 1693 wurde das Heidelberger Schloss nur teilweise restauriert. Nachdem am 24. Juni 1764 Blitze die teilweise renovierte Anlage in Brand gesetzt hatten, wurde die Wiederherstellung aufgegeben. Die Schlossruine aus rotem Neckartäler Sandstein erhebt sich 80 Meter über dem Talgrund am Nordhang des Königstuhls und dominiert von dort das Bild der Altstadt. Der Ottheinrichsbau, einer der Palastbauten des Schlosses, zählt zu den bedeutendsten Bauwerken des deutschen Manierismus. In der kulturgeschichtlichen Epoche der Romantik wurde die Schlossruine zu einem Inbegriff einer vergangenen und bewundernswerten Epoche stilisiert. Es zählt heute zu den meistbesuchten touristischen Sehenswürdigkeiten Europas.

 

Geschichte

 

Bis zu den Zerstörungen

 

Erste Erwähnungen

 

Um das Jahr 1182 verlegte Konrad der Staufer, Halbbruder von Kaiser Friedrich I. Barbarossa und seit 1156 Pfalzgraf bei Rhein, seine Hofhaltung von der Burg Stahleck bei Bacharach am Mittelrhein auf die Burg Heidelberg, seinem Sitz als Vogt des Klosters Schönau im Odenwald.

 

Die Stadt Heidelberg wird im Jahr 1196 zum ersten Mal in einer Urkunde genannt. Eine Burg in Heidelberg („castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri“) wird im Jahr 1225 erwähnt, als Ludwig der Kelheimer diese Burg vom Bischof Heinrich von Worms als Lehen erhielt. 1214 waren die Herzöge von Bayern aus dem Haus Wittelsbach mit der Pfalzgrafschaft belehnt worden.

 

Von einer Burg ist zuletzt im Jahr 1294 die Rede. In einer Urkunde des Jahres 1303 werden zum ersten Mal zwei Burgen aufgeführt: die obere Burg auf dem Kleinen Gaisberg bei der jetzigen Molkenkur und die untere Burg auf dem Jettenbühl. Lange Zeit hatte sich deshalb in der Forschung die Auffassung durchgesetzt, dass die Gründung der unteren Burg zwischen 1294 und 1303 entstanden sein müsse, zumal die vom Schlossbaubüro in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts akribisch durchgeführte Bauaufnahme zum Schluss gelangte, dass die Bausubstanz keine Datierung des Schlosses vor das 15. Jahrhundert gerechtfertigt habe. Aufgrund von Architekturfunden und neueren bauarchäologischen Untersuchungen wird in der jüngeren Forschung zum Heidelberger Schloss die Entstehung der unteren Burg dagegen mittlerweile auf die erste Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts datiert. Bereits 1897 wurde ein vermauertes spätromanisches Fenster in der Trennwand zwischen Gläsernem Saalbau und Friedrichsbau entdeckt. 1976 förderten Ausschachtungsarbeiten an der Nordostecke des Ruprechtbaues in einer um 1400 abgelagerten Schutt- und Abbruchschicht ein Fensterfragment in Form eines Kleeblattbogens zutage, wie es sich in ähnlicher Form in den Arkadenfenstern der Burg Wildenberg findet. Eine im Jahr 1999 im Bereich des Ludwigsbaus durchgeführte archäologische Untersuchung verdichtete die Hinweise auf eine Bebauung des Schlossareals in der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jahrhunderts.

 

Die ältesten Werke, die das Heidelberger Schloss erwähnen, sind:

 

der Thesaurus Picturarum des pfälzischen Kirchenrats Markus zum Lamb (1559 bis 1606)

die Annales Academici Heidelbergenses des Heidelberger Bibliothekars und Professors Pithopoeus (1587 begonnen)

der Originum Palatinarum Commentarius von Marquard Freher (1599)

das Teutsche Reyssebuch von Martin Zeiller (Straßburg 1632, als Itinerarium Germaniae 1674 wieder abgedruckt)

 

Alle diese Werke sind meist oberflächlich und enthalten nichts Ernsthaftes. Anders verhält es sich mit Matthäus Merian Topographia Palatinatus Rheni aus dem Jahr 1615, in der Kurfürst Ludwig V. als derjenige genannt wird, der „vor hundert und etlichen Jahren hat ein neu Schloß angefangen zu bauen“. Auf Merians Angaben stützen sich die meisten Beschreibungen des Schlosses bis ins 18. Jahrhundert hinein. Das Bestreben, die Gründungszeit des Schlosses weiter rückwärts zu verlegen, führt später zu Hinweisen, dass bereits unter Ruprecht I. die berühmte Hofkapelle auf dem Jettenbühl errichtet worden sei.

Königsschloss und Papstgefängnis

 

Als Ruprecht III. im Jahr 1401 Deutscher König (Ruprecht I.) wurde, herrschte im Schloss so großer Raummangel, dass er bei seiner Rückkehr von der Königskrönung sein Hoflager im Augustinerkloster (heute: Universitätsplatz) aufschlagen musste. Jetzt galt es, Raum zur Repräsentation und zur Unterbringung des Beamten- und Hofstaates zu schaffen. Gleichzeitig musste die Burg zu einer Festung ausgebaut werden. Etwa aus der Zeit Ruprechts III. stammen die ältesten heute sichtbaren Teile des Schlosses.

 

Nach Ruprechts Tod im Jahr 1410 wurde der Herrschaftsbereich unter seinen vier Söhnen aufgeteilt. Die pfälzischen Stammlande gingen an den ältesten Sohn Ludwig III. Nach dem Konzil von Konstanz brachte dieser als Stellvertreter des Kaisers und oberster Richter im Jahr 1415 im Auftrag König Sigismunds den abgesetzten Papst Johannes XXIII. auf dem Schloss in Gewahrsam, bevor er auf Burg Eichelsheim (heute Mannheim-Lindenhof) gebracht wurde.

 

Der französische Dichter Victor Hugo besuchte 1838 Heidelberg und spazierte dabei besonders gerne in den Ruinen des Schlosses herum, dessen Geschichte er in einem Brief zusammenfasst:

 

„Lassen Sie mich nur von seinem Schloß sprechen. (Das ist absolut unerläßlich, und eigentlich hätte ich damit beginnen sollen). Was hat es nicht alles durchgemacht! Fünfhundert Jahre lang hat es die Rückwirkungen von allem hinnehmen müssen, was Europa erschüttert hat, und am Ende ist es darunter zusammengebrochen. Das liegt daran, daß dieses Heidelberger Schloß, die Residenz des Pfalzgrafen, der über sich nur Könige, Kaiser und Päpste hatte und zu bedeutend war, um sich unter deren Füßen zu krümmen, aber nicht den Kopf heben konnte, ohne mit ihnen aneinanderzugeraten, das liegt daran, meine ich, daß das Heidelberger Schloß immer irgendeine Oppositionshaltung gegenüber den Mächtigen eingenommen hat. Schon um 1300, der Zeit seiner Gründung, beginnt es mit einer Thebais; in dem Grafen Rudolf und dem Kaiser Ludwig, diesen beiden entarteten Brüdern, hat es seinen Eteokles und seinen Polyneikes. Darin nimmt der Kurfürst an Macht zu. Im Jahre 1400 setzt der Pfälzer Ruprecht II., unterstützt von drei rheinischen Kurfürsten, Kaiser Wenzeslaus ab und nimmt dessen Stelle ein; hundertzwanzig Jahre später, 1519, sollte Pfalzgraf Friedrich II. den jungen König Karl I. von Spanien zu Kaiser Karl V. machen.“

 

– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg

 

Badisch-Pfälzischer Krieg

 

Im Badisch-Pfälzischen Krieg 1462 setzte Kurfürst Friedrich I. von der Pfalz (der „Pfälzer Fritz“) den Markgrafen Karl I. von Baden, den Bischof Georg von Metz und den Grafen Ulrich V. von Württemberg auf dem Schloss fest. Friedrich ließ die Gefangenen bei harter Kost in Ketten legen, bis sie bereit waren, die geforderten Lösegeldzahlungen zu leisten. Markgraf Karl I. musste zur Freilassung 25.000 Gulden zahlen, seinen Anteil an der Grafschaft Sponheim als Pfand abgeben und Pforzheim zum pfälzischen Lehen erklären. Der Metzer Bischof musste 45.000 Gulden zahlen. Das Wichtigste war aber, dass Friedrich I. von der Pfalz seinen Anspruch als Kurfürst gesichert hatte. Die Sage berichtet, Friedrich habe seinen unfreiwilligen Gästen das Fehlen von Brot bei der Mahlzeit dadurch begreiflich gemacht, dass er sie durch das Fenster auf das verwüstete Land hinab blicken ließ. Dies wird in einem Gedicht von Gustav Schwab mit dem Titel „Das Mahl zu Heidelberg“ nacherzählt.

 

Reformation und Dreißigjähriger Krieg

 

Während der Regierung Ludwigs V. besichtigte Martin Luther, der zu einer Verteidigung seiner Thesen (Heidelberger Disputation) nach Heidelberg gekommen war, das Schloss. Er wurde dabei von Pfalzgraf Wolfgang, dem Bruder Ludwigs V., herumgeführt und lobte später in einem Brief an seinen Freund Georg Spalatin vom 18. Mai 1518 die Schönheit und kriegerische Ausrüstung des Schlosses.

 

Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg flogen zum ersten Mal Kugeln gegen das Heidelberger Schloss. Hiermit endet auch die eigentliche Geschichte des Schlossbaus. Die folgenden Jahrhunderte bringen hauptsächlich Zerstörungen und Wiederherstellungen.

 

Friedrich V. von der Pfalz nahm – trotz vieler Bedenken – die Königswürde von Böhmen an und löste damit eine Katastrophe aus. Nach der Schlacht am Weißen Berg war er als Geächteter auf der Flucht und hatte voreilig seine Truppen entlassen, so dass General Tilly, der Oberbefehlshaber der katholischen Liga-Truppen im Dienst des Kurfürsten von Bayern, eine unverteidigte Pfalz vor sich hatte. Am 26. August 1622 eröffnete er die Beschießung Heidelbergs und nahm am 16. September die Stadt und wenige Tage darauf das Schloss ein. Nachdem die Schweden am 5. Mai 1633 die Stadt Heidelberg eingenommen und vom Königstuhl aus das Feuer auf das Schloss eröffnet hatten, übergab der kaiserliche Kommandant am 26. Mai 1633 die Festung an die Schweden. Nach der schweren Niederlage der Schweden in der Schlacht bei Nördlingen im September 1634 besetzten Truppen des Kaisers erneut die Stadt. In der Absicht, das Schloss zu sprengen, wurden innerhalb von 14 Tagen 24 Tonnen Pulver in Stollen unter den Mauern des Schlosses deponiert. Das überraschende Erscheinen einer französischen Armee mit 30.000 Mann verhinderte die geplante Sprengung. Erst im Juli 1635 kam die Stadt erneut in die Gewalt der kaiserlichen Truppen, in der es dann bis zum Friedensschluss blieb. Erst am 7. Oktober 1649 zog der neue Herrscher wieder in das zerstörte Stammschloss seiner Familie ein.

 

Im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg

 

Der französische König Ludwig XIV. verlangte nach dem Tode des kinderlosen Kurfürsten Karl II., des letzten Fürsten der Linie Pfalz-Simmern, im Namen der Herzogin von Orléans die Herausgabe des pfälzischen Allodialgutes. Am 29. September 1688 rückten die französischen Heere im Pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieg in die Pfalz und zogen am 24. Oktober in das von Philipp Wilhelm, dem neuen Kurfürsten aus der Linie Pfalz-Neuburg, verlassene Heidelberg ein.

 

Gegen die verbündeten europäischen Mächte beschloss der französische Kriegsrat, durch Zerstörung aller Festungswerke und durch Verwüstung des pfälzischen Landes dem Feinde die Möglichkeit des Angriffes von dieser Gegend her zu entziehen. Beim Ausrücken aus der Stadt am 2. März 1689 steckten die Franzosen das Schloss und auch die Stadt an vielen Ecken zugleich in Brand.

 

Johann Wilhelm ließ sofort nach seinem Einzug in die verwüstete Stadt die Mauern und Türme wiederherstellen. Als die Franzosen 1691 und 1692 erneut bis vor die Tore Heidelbergs gelangten, fanden sie die Stadt in einem so guten Verteidigungszustand vor, dass sie unverrichteter Dinge abziehen mussten. Am 18. Mai 1693 standen die Franzosen allerdings wieder vor der Stadt und nahmen sie am 22. Mai ein. Sie versuchten vermutlich, mit der Zerstörung der Stadt die Hauptoperationsbasis gegen das Schloss zu schaffen. Am folgenden Tage kapitulierte die Schlossbesatzung, und nun holten die Franzosen nach, was sie 1689 in der Eile ihres Abzugs nur unvollständig ausgeführt hatten: Sie sprengten nun durch Minen die Türme und Mauern, die beim letzten Mal der Zerstörung entgangen waren. Das Heidelberger Schloss wurde eine Ruine.

 

Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim

 

Der Frieden von Rijswijk, mit dem der Pfälzische Erbfolgekrieg beendet wurde, brachte im Jahr 1697 endlich etwas Ruhe. Es war geplant, das Schloss abzureißen und die brauchbaren Teile zur Errichtung eines neuen Palastes im Tal zu verwenden. Als sich aber der Durchführung dieses Planes Schwierigkeiten entgegenstellten, wurde das Schloss notdürftig wiederhergestellt. Gleichzeitig trug sich Karl Philipp mit dem Gedanken eines vollständigen Umbaues des Schlosses, aber der Mangel an finanziellen Mitteln schob dieses Projekt auf, und als der Kurfürst 1720 mit den Protestanten der Stadt wegen Überlassung der Heiliggeistkirche an die Katholiken in Streit geriet, der die Verlegung der Residenz nach Mannheim zur Folge hatte, endete das Interesse des Kurfürsten am Heidelberger Schloss. Seine Absicht war es, die Heiliggeistkirche zur katholischen Hofkirche umzuwidmen, was die Heidelberger Reformierten mit allen Mitteln zu verhindern suchten. Als er am 12. April 1720 die Verlegung seiner Residenz mit allen Behörden nach Mannheim verkündete, überließ der Kurfürst die alte Hauptstadt ihrem Schicksal und wünschte ihr, dass „Gras auf ihren Straßen wachsen“ solle. Der religiöse Konflikt war vermutlich aber nur der letzte Anstoß gewesen, das alte, schwer zu einer barocken Anlage umzubauende Bergschloss aufzugeben und in die Ebene zu ziehen, wo er eine ganz seinem Willen entspringende Neugründung vornehmen konnte.

 

Sein Nachfolger Karl Theodor plante vorübergehend, seinen Wohnsitz wieder ins Heidelberger Schloss zu verlegen. Er nahm davon allerdings wieder Abstand, als am 24. Juni 1764 der Blitz zweimal hintereinander in den Saalbau einschlug und das Schloss abermals brannte. Victor Hugo hielt dies später für einen Wink des Himmels:

 

„Man könnte sogar sagen, daß der Himmel sich eingemischt hat. Am 23. Juni 1764, einen Tag, bevor Karl-Theodor in das Schloß einziehen und es zu seiner Residenz machen sollte (was, nebenbei gesagt, ein großes Unglück gewesen wäre; denn wenn Karl-Theodor seine dreißig Jahre dort verbracht hätte, wäre die strenge Ruine, die wir heute bewundern, sicher mit einer schrecklichen Pompadour-Verzierung versehen worden), an diesem Vortag also, als die Möbel des Fürsten bereits vor der Tür, in der Heiliggeistkirche, standen, traf das Feuer des Himmels den achteckigen Turm, setzte das Dach in Brand und zerstörte in wenigen Stunden dieses fünfhundert Jahre alte Schloß.“

 

– Victor Hugo: Heidelberg.

 

In den folgenden Jahrzehnten wurden zwar noch notwendige Erneuerungen vorgenommen, aber das Heidelberger Schloss blieb von nun an hauptsächlich eine Ruine.

 

Seit den Zerstörungen

 

Langsamer Zerfall und romantische Begeisterung

 

Im Jahr 1777 verlegte Kurfürst Karl Theodor seine Residenz von Mannheim nach München. Damit verlor er das Heidelberger Schloss noch mehr aus den Augen. Die überdachten Räume wurden nun von Handwerksbetrieben genutzt. Schon 1767 hatte man begonnen, die Quader des Südwalles als Baumaterial für das Schwetzinger Schloss zu verwenden. Im Jahr 1784 wurden gar die Gewölbe im Erdgeschoss des Ottheinrichsbaus eingelegt und das Schloss als Steinbruch verwendet.

 

Durch den Reichsdeputationshauptschluss von 1803 gingen Heidelberg und Mannheim an Baden über. Der große Gebietszuwachs war Großherzog Karl Friedrich willkommen, das Heidelberger Schloss betrachtete er jedoch als unerwünschte Zugabe. Die Bauten verfielen, Heidelberger Bürger holten aus dem Schloss Steine, Holz und Eisen zum Bau ihrer Häuser. Auch Figuren und Verzierungen wurden abgeschlagen. August von Kotzebue äußerte sich 1803 voller Empörung über die Absicht der badischen Regierung, die Ruinen abtragen zu lassen. Das zerstörte Schloss wurde am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts zum Sinnbild für die patriotische Gesinnung, die sich gegen die napoleonische Unterdrückung richtete.

 

Schon vor 1800 erkannten Maler und Zeichner in der Schlossruine und der bergigen Flusslandschaft ein idealtypisches Ensemble. Den Höhepunkt bilden die Gemälde des Engländers William Turner, der sich zwischen 1817 und 1844 mehrfach in Heidelberg aufhielt und etliche Gemälde von Heidelberg und dem Schloss anfertigte. Ihm und anderen Künstlern der Romantik ging es dabei nicht um eine detailgetreue Bauaufnahme. Sie pflegten eher einen recht freien Umgang mit der Wirklichkeit. So ist bei seinem Gemälde des Schlosses das Gelände mehrfach überhöht dargestellt.

 

Der Begriff Romantik wurde von dem Philosophen Friedrich Schlegel Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts zu einer Universalpoesie erklärt – ein literaturtheoretischer Begriff aus der Frühromantik. In ihr würden alle Künste und Gattungen zu einer Form verschmelzen. Jedoch wandelte sich dies im allgemeinen Verständnis zu einem verklärenden sentimentalen Gefühl der Sehnsucht. Diese Empfindung fand insbesondere in der sogenannten Heidelberger Romantik ihren Ausdruck. So zum Beispiel in Liedersammlungen der Autoren Achim von Arnim und Clemens Brentano, die sich oft in Heidelberg aufhielten. Landschaftsmaler machten die Schlossreste zum zentralen Motiv ihrer Gemälde, in denen häufig das Anmutige der umgebenden Landschaft in Kontrast gestellt wurde zum Feierlich-Düsteren der Ruine. Clemens Brentano dichtete:

 

„Und da ich um die Ecke bog, – ein kühles Lüftlein mir entgegen zog – Der Neckar rauscht aus grünen Hallen – Und giebt am Fels ein freudig Schallen, – Die Stadt streckt sich den Fluss hinunter, – Mit viel Geräusch und lärmt ganz munter, – Und drüber an grüner Berge Brust, – Ruht groß das Schloss und sieht die Lust.“

 

– Clemens Brentano: Lied von eines Studenten Ankunft in Heidelberg und seinem Traum auf der Brücke, worin ein schöner Dialogus zwischen Frau Pallas und Karl Theodor.

 

Die auf Poetik beruhenden Konzepte der Romantik wurden in brieflichen Diskussionen zwischen Achim und Jacob Grimm über das Verhältnis von Natur- und Kunstpoesie entwickelt. Abkehrend von den Elementen der Reflexion, Kritik und Rhetorik in der Kunstpoesie, beschäftigt sich die „Heidelberger Romantik“ mit der Naturpoesie. Im Laufe des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde Heidelberg mit seinem Schloss und der heimischen Natur auch bei Reisenden und Wanderern zunehmend bekannt und beliebt. Stadt und Schloss wurden zum Inbegriff romantischer Stimmung.

 

Der Retter des Schlosses war der französische Graf Charles de Graimberg. Er kämpfte gegen Pläne der badischen Regierung, für die das Heidelberger Schloss das „alte Gemäuer mit seinen vielfältigen, geschmacklosen, ruinösen Verzierungen“ war, für die Erhaltung der Schlossruinen. Er versah bis 1822 das Amt eines freiwilligen Schlosswächters und wohnte eine Zeit lang im Vorbau des Gläsernen Saalbaues, von dem aus er den Schlosshof am besten übersehen konnte. Lange bevor es in Deutschland eine Denkmalpflege gab, war er der erste, der sich um den Erhalt und die Dokumentation des Schlosses kümmerte, als bei der romantischen Schwärmerei noch niemand daran dachte, den Verfall zu unterbinden. In Auftrag Graimbergs verfasste Thomas A. Leger den ersten Schlossführer. Mit seinen in hoher Auflage produzierten druckgraphischen Ansichten verhalf Graimberg der Schlossruine zu einem Bekanntheitsgrad, der den Tourismus nach Heidelberg lenkte.

 

Bestandsaufnahme und Restaurierung – der Heidelberger Schlossstreit

 

Die Frage, ob das Schloss vollständig wiederhergestellt werden solle, führte zu langen Diskussionen. Der Dichter Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter machte sich im Jahr 1868 für eine vollständige Erneuerung stark und rief damit heftige Reaktionen hervor, die in der Presse und in Versammlungen ausgetragen wurden. Aus dem Streit um den richtigen Umgang mit der Schlossruine entwickelte sich eine Grundsatzdiskussion über die Aufgaben der Denkmalpflege. Die Ergebnisse dieser Debatte, die als der „Heidelberger Schlossstreit“ in die Geschichte eingegangen sind, prägten die Prinzipien der Bewahrung historischer Bauwerke nachhaltig.

 

Die Großherzogliche badische Regierung errichtete im Jahr 1883 ein Schloßbaubüro, das unter Oberaufsicht des Baudirektors Josef Durm in Karlsruhe vom Bezirksbauinspektor Julius Koch und dem Architekten Fritz Seitz geleitet wurde. Aufgabe des Büros war es, eine möglichst genaue Bestandsaufnahme zu machen und zugleich Maßnahmen zur Erhaltung oder Instandsetzung der Hauptgebäude vorzuschlagen. Die Arbeiten dieses Büros endeten 1890 und bildeten die Grundlage für eine Kommission von Fachleuten aus ganz Deutschland. Die Kommission kam zu der einhelligen Überzeugung, dass eine völlige oder teilweise Wiederherstellung des Schlosses nicht in Betracht komme, dagegen eine Erhaltung des jetzigen Zustandes mit allen Mitteln zu erstreben sei. Nur der Friedrichsbau, dessen Innenräume zwar durch Feuer zerstört worden waren, der aber nie Ruine war, sollte wiederhergestellt werden. Diese Wiederherstellung geschah schließlich in der Zeit von 1897 bis 1900 durch Carl Schäfer mit dem enormen Kostenaufwand von 520.000 Mark. Im Jahr 2019 entspricht der Aufwand Inflationsbereinigt 3.700.000 €.

 

Schlossruine und Tourismus

 

Schon die älteste Beschreibung Heidelbergs aus dem Jahr 1465 erwähnt, dass die Stadt „vielbesucht von Fremden“ sei. Doch ein eigentlicher Städtetourismus setzte frühestens zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts ein. Graf Graimberg sorgte mit seinen Zeichnungen dafür, dass das Schloss als Bildmotiv eine große Verbreitung fand. Sie wurden praktisch zu Vorläufern der Postkarte. Zur gleichen Zeit gab es auch schon das Schloss als Souvenir auf Tassen. Den entscheidenden Schub erhielt der Tourismus aber erst mit dem Anschluss Heidelbergs ans Eisenbahnnetz im Jahr 1840.

 

Mark Twain beschrieb 1878 in seinem Buch Bummel durch Europa (A Tramp Abroad) das Heidelberger Schloss folgendermaßen:

 

„Um gut zu wirken, muss eine Ruine den richtigen Standort haben. Diese hier hätte nicht günstiger gelegen sein können. Sie steht auf einer die Umgebung beherrschenden Höhe, sie ist in grünen Wäldern verborgen, um sie herum gibt es keinen ebenen Grund, sondern im Gegenteil bewaldete Terrassen, man blickt durch glänzende Blätter in tiefe Klüfte und Abgründe hinab, wo Dämmer herrscht und die Sonne nicht eindringen kann. Die Natur versteht es, eine Ruine zu schmücken, um die beste Wirkung zu erzielen.“

 

– Mark Twain: Bummel durch Europa.

 

Bei einem am 18. Mai 1978 verübten Brandanschlag, der den Revolutionären Zellen zugerechnet wird, entstand ein Sachschaden von 97.000 DM am Schloss.

 

Im 20. Jahrhundert verfielen die US-Amerikaner noch mehr dem Heidelberg-Mythos und trugen ihn hinaus in die Welt. So kommt es, dass auch viele andere Nationalitäten das Heidelberger Schloss auf ihren Kurzreisen durch Europa zu den wenigen Zwischenstopps zählen.

 

Heidelberg hat zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts jährlich mehr als eine Million Besucher und etwa 900.000 Übernachtungen. Wichtigster Anlaufpunkt ist laut einer Befragung des geografischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg das Schloss mit seinen Aussichtsterrassen.

 

Das Heidelberger Schloss zählt heute zu den landeseigenen Monumenten und wird von der Einrichtung „Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg“ betreut. Aus dem Landesinfrastrukturprogramm Baden-Württemberg wurden für den Neubau eines von Max Dudler entworfenen Besucherzentrums 3 Millionen Euro zur Verfügung gestellt. Es wurde 2012 eröffnet.

 

Zudem ist das Schloss nach Angaben der Schlösserverwaltung das größte Fledermaus-Winterquartier in Nordbaden. Wegen der dort überwinternden Zwergfledermaus sowie dem Großen Mausohr wurde im Jahr 2016 der im Stückgarten vor dem Schloss stattfindende Teil des Weihnachtsmarktes auf den Friedrich-Ebert-Platz verlegt.

 

(Wikipdia)

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

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Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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Why Does Eastern Lightning Surge Forward With Unstoppable Progress

 

In fact, it’s not hard to find the reason why. It would be as well to first take a look at the work of the Lord Jesus before looking into this question, and we will naturally come to find the answer. When the Lord Jesus appeared and performed His work, He was subjected to the frantic resistance and condemnation of the Jewish chief priests, scribes and Pharisees, to the point where they even colluded with the Roman authorities to nail Jesus to the cross, thus hoping in vain to ban the Lord Jesus’ work. Why then did the gospel of the Lord Jesus spread throughout the Jewish world and reach even the ears of the Gentiles? The Roman authorities savagely persecuted and massacred Christians for three hundred years, so how come the number of Christians not only did not diminish, but on the contrary grew and developed through this persecution, spreading to all corners of the Roman empire and throughout the entire world? It was because the Lord Jesus was God incarnated in the flesh, He was the appearance of God, and the Lord Jesus’ works and words were the works and words of God, therefore no one could stop or destroy the expansion of the Lord Jesus’ gospel. The Bible says, “For if this counsel or this work be of men, it will come to nothing: But if it be of God, you cannot overthrow it; lest haply you be found even to fight against God” (Acts 5:38-39). That is to say, anything that comes from God will thrive and anything that comes from man will surely decay. Almighty God’s words say, “We trust that no country or power can stand in the way of what God wishes to achieve” (“God Presides Over the Fate of All Mankind” in The Word Appears in the Flesh). Similarly, if Eastern Lightning wasn’t the appearance and work of the one and only true God, would it have been able to break through the layer upon layer of obstructions, resistance and persecution thrown up by the religious world and the atheistic CCP government, like a bastion of iron walls, and spread rapidly throughout China and even throughout the rest of the world? If it was not guided by the work of the Holy Spirit, would it have the authority and power to make all nations flow to this mountain and all religions become one? If it wasn’t the appearance and work of God, would it have been able to express the truth and execute judgment to conquer so many true believers of the various denominations, those good sheep and leading sheep, and make them follow with resolute hearts? The facts are enough to prove that Christ of the last days, the Almighty God that Eastern Lightning bears testimony to, is the Lord Jesus returned, and is indeed the God who has appeared and works in the last days. Therefore, Eastern Lightning is able to surge forward with unstoppable progress while facing the frantic persecution and cruel suppression of the CCP government and the religious world!

 

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《 Eastern Lightning》

 

Beholding the Appearance of God in His Judgment and Chastisement

1. Beholding the Appearance of God in His Judgment and Chastisement

 

Like hundreds of millions of other followers of the Lord Jesus Christ, we abide by the laws and commandments of the Bible, enjoy the abundant grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and gather together, pray, praise, and serve in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ—and all this we do under the care and protection of the Lord. We are often weak, and often strong. We believe that all of our actions are in accordance with the teachings of the Lord. It goes without saying, then, that we also believe ourselves to walk the path of obedience to the will of the Father in heaven. We long for the return of the Lord Jesus, for the glorious arrival of the Lord Jesus, for the end of our life on earth, for the appearance of the kingdom, and for everything as it was foretold in the Book of Revelation: The Lord arrives, and brings disaster, and rewards the good and punishes the wicked, and takes all those who follow Him and welcome His return into the air to meet Him. Every time we think of this, we can’t help but be overcome with emotion. We are thankful that we were born in the last days and are lucky enough to witness the coming of the Lord. Though we have suffered persecution, it is in return for “a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory”; what a blessing that is! All of this longing and the grace bestowed by the Lord make us often sober unto prayer, and bring us together more often. Maybe next year, maybe tomorrow, or maybe even sooner when man does not expect it, the Lord shall suddenly arrive, and shall appear among a group of people who have been attentively waiting for Him. We are all contending with each other, none wanting to fall behind, in order to be the first group to behold the appearance of the Lord, to become one of those who shall be raptured. We have given everything, regardless of the cost, for the coming of this day. Some have given up their jobs, some have abandoned their families, some have renounced marriage, and some have even donated all of their savings. What selfless devotion! Such sincerity and loyalty must be beyond even the saints of ages past! As the Lord bestows grace upon whomever He wishes, and has mercy on whomever He wishes, our devotion and spending, we believe, have already been beheld by His eyes. So, too, have our heartfelt prayers already reached His ears, and we trust that the Lord will reward us for our devotion. Moreover, God was graceful toward us before He created the world, and none shall take away God’s blessings and promises to us. We are all planning for the future, and take it for granted that our devotion and spending are bargaining chips or stock for our rapture into the air to meet the Lord. What’s more, without the slightest hesitation, we place ourselves on the future throne, presiding over all nations and all peoples, or ruling as kings. All this we take as a given, as something to be expected.

 

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Eastern Lightning, The Church of Almighty God was created because of the appearance and work of Almighty God, the second coming of the Lord Jesus, Christ of the last days. It is made up of all those who accept Almighty God's work in the last days and are conquered and saved by His words. It was entirely founded by Almighty God personally and is led by Him as the Shepherd. It was definitely not created by a person. Christ is the truth, the way, and the life. God's sheep hear God's voice. As long as you read the words of Almighty God, you will see God

 

1. Beholding the Appearance of God in His Judgment and Chastisement

 

Heading northwest from Canbulat Gate, on the way back to the center of town are two small and closely situated Franco-Byzantine-style churches. To the north are the ruins of Agios Nikolaos (St Nicholas Church)

 

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

 

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

 

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

 

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

 

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

 

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

 

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

 

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

 

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

 

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

 

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

 

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

 

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

 

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

 

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

 

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

 

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

 

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

 

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

 

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

 

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

 

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

 

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

 

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

 

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

 

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

 

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

 

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

 

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

 

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

 

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

 

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

 

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

 

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

 

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

 

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

 

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

 

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

 

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

 

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

 

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

O Pantheon, em Roma.

The Pantheon, in Rome.

 

A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

Pantheon, Rome.

The Pantheon (Latin: Pantheon, from Greek: Πάνθειον, meaning "Temple of all the gods") is a building in Rome which was originally built as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome, and rebuilt circa 126 AD during Hadrian's reign. The intended degree of inclusiveness of this dedication is debated. The generic term pantheon is now applied to a monument in which illustrious dead are buried. It is the best preserved of all Roman buildings, and perhaps the best preserved building of its age in the world. It has been in continuous use throughout its history. The design of the extant building is sometimes credited to Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damascus, but it is equally likely that the building and the design should be credited to Emperor Hadrian's architects, though not to Hadrian himself as many art scholars once thought. Since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a Roman Catholic church. The Pantheon is the oldest standing domed structure in Rome. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft).

n the aftermath of the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Agrippa built and dedicated the original Pantheon during his third consulship (27 BC). Agrippa's Pantheon was destroyed along with other buildings in a huge fire in 80 AD. The current building dates from about 126 AD, during the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, as date-stamps on the bricks reveal. It was totally reconstructed with the text of the original inscription ("M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT", standing for Latin: Marcus Agrippa, Lucii filius, consul tertium fecit translated to "'Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, Consul for the third time, built this") which was added to the new facade, a common practice in Hadrian's rebuilding projects all over Rome. Hadrian was a cosmopolitan emperor who travelled widely in the East and was a great admirer of Greek culture. He might have intended the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods, to be a kind of ecumenical or syncretist gesture to the subjects of the Roman Empire who did not worship the old gods of Rome, or who (as was increasingly the case) worshipped them under other names. How the building was actually used is not known.

Cassius Dio, a Graeco-Roman senator, consul and author of a comprehensive History of Rome, writing approximately 75 years after the Pantheon's reconstruction, mistakenly attributed the domed building to Agrippa rather than Hadrian. Dio's book appears to be the only near-contemporary writing on the Pantheon, and it is interesting that even by the year 200 there was uncertainty about the origin of the building and its purpose:

Agrippa finished the construction of the building called the Pantheon. It has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens. (Cassius Dio History of Rome 53.27.2)

The building was repaired by Septimius Severus and Caracalla in 202 AD, for which there is another, smaller inscription. This inscription reads "pantheum vetustate corruptum cum omni cultu restituerunt" ('with every refinement they restored the Pantheon worn by age').

In 609 the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a Christian church and consecrated it to Santa Maria ad Martyres, now known as Santa Maria dei Martiri.

The building's consecration as a church saved it from the abandonment, destruction, and the worst of the spoliation which befell the majority of ancient Rome's buildings during the early medieval period. Paul the Deacon records the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans II, who visited Rome in July 663:

Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled down everything that in ancient times had been made of metal for the ornament of the city, to such an extent that he even stripped off the roof of the church [of the blessed Mary] which at one time was called the Pantheon, and had been founded in honor of all the gods and was now by the consent of the former rulers the place of all the martyrs; and he took away from there the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other ornaments to Constantinople.

Much fine external marble has been removed over the centuries, and there are capitals from some of the pilasters in the British Museum. Two columns were swallowed up in the medieval buildings that abbutted the Pantheon on the east and were lost. In the early seventeenth century, Urban VIII Barberini tore away the bronze ceiling of the portico, and replaced the medieval campanile with the famous twin towers built by Maderno, which were not removed until the late nineteenth century. The only other loss has been the external sculptures, which adorned the pediment above Agrippa's inscription. The marble interior and the great bronze doors have survived, although both have been extensively restored.

Since the Renaissance the Pantheon has been used as a tomb. Among those buried there are the painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer Arcangelo Corelli, and the architect Baldassare Peruzzi. In the 15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paintings: the best-known is the Annunciation by Melozzo da Forlì. Architects, like Brunelleschi, who used the Pantheon as help when designing the Cathedral of Florence's dome, looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for their works.

Pope Urban VIII (1623 to 1644) ordered the bronze ceiling of the Pantheon's portico melted down. Most of the bronze was used to make bombards for the fortification of Castel Sant'Angelo, with the remaining amount used by the Apostolic Camera for various other works. It is also said that the bronze was used by Bernini in creating his famous baldachin above the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica, but according to at least one expert, the Pope's accounts state that about 90% of the bronze was used for the cannon, and that the bronze for the baldachin came from Venice. This led the Roman satirical figure Pasquino to issue the famous proverb: Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini ("What the barbarians did not do, the Barberinis [Urban VIII's family name] did")

In 1747, the broad frieze below the dome with its false windows was “restored,” but bore little resemblance to the original. In the early decades of the twentieth century, a piece of the original, as could be reconstructed from Renaissance drawings and paintings, was recreated in one of the panels.

Also buried there are two kings of Italy: Vittorio Emanuele II and Umberto I, as well as Umberto's Queen, Margherita. Although Italy has been a republic since 1946, volunteer members of Italian monarchist organizations maintain a vigil over the royal tombs in the Pantheon. This has aroused protests from time to time from republicans, but the Catholic authorities allow the practice to continue, although the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage is in charge of the security and maintenance.

The Pantheon is still used as a church. Masses are celebrated there, particularly on important Catholic days of obligation, and weddings.

The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment opening into the rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus), the Great Eye, open to the sky. A rectangular structure links the portico with the rotunda. Though often still drawn as a free-standing building, there was a building at its rear into which it abutted; of this building there are only archaeological remains.

In the walls at the back of the portico were niches, probably for statues of Caesar, Augustus and Agrippa, or for the Capitoline Triad, or another set of gods. The large bronze doors to the cella, once plated with gold, still remain but the gold has long since vanished. The pediment was decorated with a sculpture — holes may still be seen where the clamps which held the sculpture in place were fixed.

The 4,535 metric ton (5,000 tn) weight of the concrete dome is concentrated on a ring of voussoirs 9.1 metres (30 ft) in diameter which form the oculus while the downward thrust of the dome is carried by eight barrel vaults in the 6.4 metre (21 ft) thick drum wall into eight piers. The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2 metres (4 ft) around the oculus. The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube (alternatively, the interior could house a sphere 43.3 metres (142 ft) in diameter). The Pantheon holds the record for the largest unreinforced concrete dome. The interior of the roof was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of the heavens. The Great Eye at the dome's apex is the source of all light in the interior. The oculus also serves as a cooling and ventilation method. During storms, a drainage system below the floor handles the rain that falls through the oculus.

The interior features sunken panels (coffers), which, in antiquity, may have contained bronze stars, rosettes, or other ornaments. This coffering was not only decorative, but also reduced the weight of the roof, as did the elimination of the apex by means of the Great Eye. The top of the rotunda wall features a series of brick-relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such devices — for example, there are relieving arches over the recesses inside — but all these arches were hidden by marble facing on the interior and possibly by stone revetment or stucco on the exterior. Some changes have been made in the interior decoration.

It is known from Roman sources that their concrete is made up of a pasty hydrate of lime, with pozzolanic ash (Latin pulvis puteolanum) and lightweight pumice from a nearby volcano, and fist-sized pieces of rock. In this, it is very similar to modern concrete. No tensile test results are available on the concrete used in the Pantheon; however Cowan discussed tests on ancient concrete from Roman ruins in Libya which gave a compressive strength of 2.8 ksi (20 MPa). An empirical relationship gives a tensile strength of 213 psi (1.5 MPa) for this specimen. Finite element analysis of the structure by Mark and Hutchison found a maximum tensile stress of only 18.5 psi (0.13 MPa) at the point where the dome joins the raised outer wall. The stresses in the dome were found to be substantially reduced by the use of successively less dense concrete in higher layers of the dome. Mark and Hutchison estimated that if normal weight concrete had been used throughout the stresses in the arch would have been some 80% higher.

The 16 gray granite columns Hadrian ordered for the Pantheon's pronaos were quarried at Mons Claudianus in Egypt's eastern mountains. Each was 39 feet (11.8 m) tall, five feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and 60 tons in weight. These were dragged on wooden sledges when transporting on land. They were floated by barge down the Nile and transferred to vessels to cross the Mediterranean to the Roman port of Ostia where they were transferred back onto barges and up the Tiber to Rome.

As the best-preserved example of an Ancient Roman monumental building, the Pantheon has been enormously influential in Western Architecture from at least the Renaissance on; starting with Brunelleschi's 42-meter dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, completed in 1436 – the first sizeable dome to be constructed in Western Europe since Late Antiquity. The style of the Pantheon can be detected in many buildings of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; numerous city halls, universities and public libraries echo its portico-and-dome structure. Examples of notable buildings influenced by the Pantheon include: the Panthéon in Paris, the Temple in Dartrey, the British Museum Reading Room, Manchester Central Library, Thomas Jefferson's Rotunda at the University of Virginia, the Rotunda of Mosta, in Malta, Low Memorial Library at Columbia University, New York, the domed Marble Hall of Sanssouci palace in Potsdam, Germany, the State Library of Victoria, and the Supreme Court Library of Victoria, both in Melbourne, Australia, the 52-meter-tall Ottokár Prohászka Memorial Church in Székesfehérvár, Hungary, Holy Trinity Church in Karlskrona by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger, Sweden, The National Gallery of Art West Building by John Russell Pope, located in Washington, D.C, as well as the California State Capitol in Sacramento.

The present high altar and the apse were commissioned by Pope Clement XI (1700-1721) and designed by Alessandro Specchi. In the apse, a copy of a Byzantine icon of the Madonna is enshrined. The original, now in the Chapel of the Canons in the Vatican, has been dated to the 13th century, although tradition claims that it is much older. The choir was added in 1840, and was designed by Luigi Poletti.

The first niche to the right of the entrance holds a Madonna of the Girdle and St Nicholas of Bari (1686) painted by an unknown artist. The first chapel on the right, the Chapel of the Annunciation, has a fresco of the Annunication attributed to Melozzo da Forli. On the left side is a canvas by Clement Maioli of St Lawrence and St Agnes (1645-1650). On the right wall is the Incredulity of St Thomas (1633) by Pietro Paolo Bonzi.

The second niche has a 15th century fresco of the Tuscan school, depicting the Coronation of the Virgin. In the second chapel is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel II (died 1878). It was originally dedicated to the Holy Spirit. A competition was held to decide which architect should be given the honor of designing it. Giuseppe Sacconi participated, but lost — he would later design the tomb of Umberto I in the opposite chapel. Manfredio Manfredi won the competition, and started work in 1885. The tomb consists of a large bronze plaque surmounted by a Roman eagle and the arms of the house of Savoy. The golden lamp above the tomb burns in honor of Victor Emmanuel III, who died in exile in 1947.

The third niche has a sculpture by Il Lorenzone of St Anne and the Blessed Virgin. In the third chapel is a 15th-century painting of the Umbrian school, The Madonna of Mercy between St Francis and St John the Baptist. It is also known as the Madonna of the Railing, because it originally hung in the niche on the left-hand side of the portico, where it was protected by a railing. It was moved to the Chapel of the Annunciation, and then to its present position some time after 1837. The bronze epigram commemorated Pope Clement XI's restoration of the sanctuary. On the right wall is the canvas Emperor Phocas presenting the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV (1750) by an unknown. There are three memorial plaques in the floor, one conmmemorating a Gismonda written in the vernacular. The final niche on the right side has a statue of St. Anastasio (1725) by Bernardino Cametti.

On the first niche to the left of the entrance is an Assumption (1638) by Andrea Camassei. The first chapel on the left, is the Chapel of St Joseph in the Holy Land, and is the chapel of the Confraternity of the Virtuosi at the Pantheon. This refers to the confraternity of artists and musicians that was formed here by a 16th-century Canon of the church, Desiderio da Segni, to ensure that worship was maintained in the chapel. The first members were, among others, Antonio da Sangallo the younger, Jacopo Meneghino, Giovanni Mangone, Zuccari, Domenico Beccafumi and Flaminio Vacca. The confraternity continued to draw members from the elite of Rome's artists and architects, and among later members we find Bernini, Cortona, Algardi and many others. The institution still exists, and is now called the Academia Ponteficia di Belle Arti (The Pontifical Academy of Fine Arts), based in the palace of the Cancelleria. The altar in the chapel is covered with false marble. On the altar is a statue of St Joseph and the Holy Child by Vincenzo de Rossi. To the sides are paintings (1661) by Francesco Cozza, one of the Virtuosi: Adoration of the Shepherds on left side and Adoration of the Magi on right. The stucco relief on the left, Dream of St Joseph is by Paolo Benaglia, and the one on the right, Rest during the flight from Egypt is by Carlo Monaldi. On the vault are several 17th-century canvases, from left to right: Cumean Sibyl by Ludovico Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Father by Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi and finally Eritrean Sibyl by Giovanni Andrea Carlone.

The second niche has a statue of St Agnes, by Vincenco Felici. The bust on the left is a portrait of Baldassare Peruzzi, derived from a plaster portrait by Giovanni Duprè. The tomb of King Umberto I and his wife Margherita di Savoia is in the next chapel. The chapel was originally dedicated to St Michael the Archangel, and then to St. Thomas the Apostle. The present design is by Giuseppe Sacconi, completed after his death by his pupil Guido Cirilli. The tomb consists of a slab of alabaster mounted in gilded bronze. The frieze has allegorical representations of Generosity, by Eugenio Maccagnani, and Munificence, by Arnaldo Zocchi. The royal tombs are maintained by the National Institute of Honour Guards to the Royal Tombs, founded in 1878. They also organize picket guards at the tombs. The altar with the royal arms is by Cirilli.

The third niche holds the mortal remains — his Ossa et cineres, "Bones and ashes", as the inscription on the sarcophagus says — of the great artist Raphael. His fiancée, Maria Bibbiena is buried to the right of his sarcophagus; she died before they could marry. The sarcophagus was given by Pope Gregory XVI, and its insription reads ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMUIT QUO SOSPITE VINCI / RERUM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI, meaning "Here lies Raphael, by whom the mother of all things (Nature) feared to be overcome while he was living, and while he was dying, herself to die". The epigraph was written by Pietro Bembo. The present arrangement is from 1811, designed by Antonio Munoz. The bust of Raphael (1833) is by Giuseppe Fabris. The two plaques commemorate Maria Bibbiena and Annibale Carracci. Behind the tomb is the statue known as the Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock) so named because she rests one foot on a boulder. It was commissioned by Raphael and made by Lorenzetto in 1524.

In the Chapel of the Crucifixion, the Roman brick wall is visible in the niches. The wooden crucifix on the altar is from the 15th century. On the left wall is a Descent of the Holy Ghost (1790) by Pietro Labruzi. On the right side is the low relief Cardinal Consalvi presents to Pope Pius VII the five provinces restored to the Holy See (1824) made by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. The bust is a portrait of Cardinal Agostino Rivarola. The final niche on this side has a statue of St. Rasius (S. Erasio) (1727) by Francesco Moderati.

A couple of weeks back, we met a couple in a pub in Canterbury, and they had been out exploring the city and said they were disappointed by the cathedral.

 

Not enough labels they said.

 

That not withstanding, I thought it had been some time since I last had been, so decided to revisit, see the pillars of Reculver church in the crypt and take the big lens for some detail shots.

 

We arrived just after ten, so the cathedral was pretty free of other guests, just a few guides waiting for groups and couples to guide.

 

I went round with the 50mm first, before concentrating on the medieval glass which is mostly on the south side.

 

But as you will see, the lens picked up so much more.

 

Thing is, there is always someone interesting to talk to, or wants to talk to you. As I went around, I spoke with about three guides about the project and things I have seen in the churches of the county, and the wonderful people I have met. And that continued in the cathedral.

 

I have time to look at the tombs in the Trinity Chapel, and see that Henry IV and his wife are in a tomb there, rather than ay Westminster Abbey. So I photograph them, and the Black Prince on the southern side of the chapel, along with the Bishops and Archbishops between.

 

Round to the transept and a chance to change lenses, and put on the 140-400mm for some detailed shots.

 

I go round the cathedral again.

 

Initially at some of the memorials on the walls and the canopy of the pulpit, but it is the windows that are calling.

 

At least it was a bright, sunny day outside, which meant light was good in the cathedral with most shots coming out fine with no camera shake.

 

As I edit the shots I am stunned at the details of windows so high up they mostly seem like blocks of colour.

 

And so far, I have only just started to edit these shots.

 

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St Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, arrived on the coast of Kent as a missionary to England in 597AD. He came from Rome, sent by Pope Gregory the Great. It is said that Gregory had been struck by the beauty of Angle slaves he saw for sale in the city market and despatched Augustine and some monks to convert them to Christianity. Augustine was given a church at Canterbury (St Martin’s, after St Martin of Tours, still standing today) by the local King, Ethelbert whose Queen, Bertha, a French Princess, was already a Christian.This building had been a place of worship during the Roman occupation of Britain and is the oldest church in England still in use. Augustine had been consecrated a bishop in France and was later made an archbishop by the Pope. He established his seat within the Roman city walls (the word cathedral is derived from the the Latin word for a chair ‘cathedra’, which is itself taken from the Greek ‘kathedra’ meaning seat.) and built the first cathedral there, becoming the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Since that time, there has been a community around the Cathedral offering daily prayer to God; this community is arguably the oldest organisation in the English speaking world. The present Archbishop, The Most Revd Justin Welby, is 105th in the line of succession from Augustine. Until the 10th century, the Cathedral community lived as the household of the Archbishop. During the 10th century, it became a formal community of Benedictine monks, which continued until the monastery was dissolved by King Henry VIII in 1540. Augustine’s original building lies beneath the floor of the Nave – it was extensively rebuilt and enlarged by the Saxons, and the Cathedral was rebuilt completely by the Normans in 1070 following a major fire. There have been many additions to the building over the last nine hundred years, but parts of the Quire and some of the windows and their stained glass date from the 12th century. By 1077, Archbishop Lanfranc had rebuilt it as a Norman church, described as “nearly perfect”. A staircase and parts of the North Wall – in the area of the North West transept also called the Martyrdom – remain from that building.

 

Canterbury’s role as one of the world’s most important pilgrimage centres in Europe is inextricably linked to the murder of its most famous Archbishop, Thomas Becket, in 1170. When, after a long lasting dispute, King Henry II is said to have exclaimed “Who will rid me of this turbulent priest?”, four knights set off for Canterbury and murdered Thomas in his own cathedral. A sword stroke was so violent that it sliced the crown off his skull and shattered the blade’s tip on the pavement. The murder took place in what is now known as The Martyrdom. When shortly afterwards, miracles were said to take place, Canterbury became one of Europe’s most important pilgrimage centres.

 

The work of the Cathedral as a monastery came to an end in 1540, when the monastery was closed on the orders of King Henry VIII. Its role as a place of prayer continued – as it does to this day. Once the monastery had been suppressed, responsibility for the services and upkeep was given to a group of clergy known as the Chapter of Canterbury. Today, the Cathedral is still governed by the Dean and four Canons, together (in recent years) with four lay people and the Archdeacon of Ashford. During the Civil War of the 1640s, the Cathedral suffered damage at the hands of the Puritans; much of the medieval stained glass was smashed and horses were stabled in the Nave. After the Restoration in 1660, several years were spent in repairing the building. In the early 19th Century, the North West tower was found to be dangerous, and, although it dated from Lanfranc’s time, it was demolished in the early 1830s and replaced by a copy of the South West tower, thus giving a symmetrical appearance to the west end of the Cathedral. During the Second World War, the Precincts were heavily damaged by enemy action and the Cathedral’s Library was destroyed. Thankfully, the Cathedral itself was not seriously harmed, due to the bravery of the team of fire watchers, who patrolled the roofs and dealt with the incendiary bombs dropped by enemy bombers. Today, the Cathedral stands as a place where prayer to God has been offered daily for over 1,400 years; nearly 2,000 Services are held each year, as well as countless private prayers from individuals. The Cathedral offers a warm welcome to all visitors – its aim is to show people Jesus, which we do through the splendour of the building as well as the beauty of the worship.

 

www.canterbury-cathedral.org/heritage/history/cathedral-h...

 

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History of the cathedral

THE ORIGIN of a Christian church on the scite of the present cathedral, is supposed to have taken place as early as the Roman empire in Britain, for the use of the antient faithful and believing soldiers of their garrison here; and that Augustine found such a one standing here, adjoining to king Ethelbert's palace, which was included in the king's gift to him.

 

This supposition is founded on the records of the priory of Christ-church, (fn. 1) concurring with the common opinion of almost all our historians, who tell us of a church in Canterbury, which Augustine found standing in the east part of the city, which he had of king Ethelbert's gift, which after his consecration at Arles, in France, he commended by special dedication to the patronage of our blessed Saviour. (fn. 2)

 

According to others, the foundations only of an old church formerly built by the believing Romans, were left here, on which Augustine erected that, which he afterwards dedicated to out Saviour; (fn. 3) and indeed it is not probable that king Ethelbert should have suffered the unsightly ruins of a Christian church, which, being a Pagan, must have been very obnoxious to him, so close to his palace, and supposing these ruins had been here, would he not have suffered them to be repaired, rather than have obliged his Christian queen to travel daily to such a distance as St. Martin's church, or St. Pancrace's chapel, for the performance of her devotions.

 

Some indeed have conjectured that the church found by St. Augustine, in the east part of the city, was that of St.Martin, truly so situated; and urge in favor of it, that there have not been at any time any remains of British or Roman bricks discovered scattered in or about this church of our Saviour, those infallible, as Mr. Somner stiles them, signs of antiquity, and so generally found in buildings, which have been erected on, or close to the spot where more antient ones have stood. But to proceed, king Ethelbert's donation to Augustine was made in the year 596, who immediately afterwards went over to France, and was consecrated a bishop at Arles, and after his return, as soon as he had sufficiently finished a church here, whether built out of ruins or anew, it matters not, he exercised his episcopal function in the dedication of it, says the register of Christ-church, to the honor of Christ our Saviour; whence it afterwards obtained the name of Christ-church. (fn. 4)

 

From the time of Augustine for the space of upwards of three hundred years, there is not found in any printed or manuscript chronicle, the least mention of the fabric of this church, so that it is probable nothing befell it worthy of being recorded; however it should be mentioned, that during that period the revenues of it were much increased, for in the leiger books of it there are registered more than fifty donations of manors, lands, &c. so large and bountiful, as became the munificence of kings and nobles to confer. (fn. 5)

 

It is supposed, especially as we find no mention made of any thing to the contrary, that the fabric of this church for two hundred years after Augustine's time, met with no considerable molestations; but afterwards, the frequent invasions of the Danes involved both the civil and ecclesiastical state of this country in continual troubles and dangers; in the confusion of which, this church appears to have run into a state of decay; for when Odo was promoted to the archbishopric, in the year 938, the roof of it was in a ruinous condition; age had impaired it, and neglect had made it extremely dangerous; the walls of it were of an uneven height, according as it had been more or less decayed, and the roof of the church seemed ready to fall down on the heads of those underneath. All this the archbishop undertook to repair, and then covered the whole church with lead; to finish which, it took three years, as Osbern tells us, in the life of Odo; (fn. 6) and further, that there was not to be found a church of so large a size, capable of containing so great a multitude of people, and thus, perhaps, it continued without any material change happening to it, till the year 1011; a dismal and fatal year to this church and city; a time of unspeakable confusion and calamities; for in the month of September that year, the Danes, after a siege of twenty days, entered this city by force, burnt the houses, made a lamentable slaughter of the inhabitants, rifled this church, and then set it on fire, insomuch, that the lead with which archbishop Odo had covered it, being melted, ran down on those who were underneath. The sull story of this calamity is given by Osbern, in the life of archbishop Odo, an abridgement of which the reader will find below. (fn. 7)

 

The church now lay in ruins, without a roof, the bare walls only standing, and in this desolate condition it remained as long as the fury of the Danes prevailed, who after they had burnt the church, carried away archbishop Alphage with them, kept him in prison seven months, and then put him to death, in the year 1012, the year after which Living, or Livingus, succeeded him as archbishop, though it was rather in his calamities than in his seat of dignity, for he too was chained up by the Danes in a loathsome dungeon for seven months, before he was set free, but he so sensibly felt the deplorable state of this country, which he foresaw was every day growing worse and worse, that by a voluntary exile, he withdrew himself out of the nation, to find some solitary retirement, where he might bewail those desolations of his country, to which he was not able to bring any relief, but by his continual prayers. (fn. 8) He just outlived this storm, returned into England, and before he died saw peace and quientness restored to this land by king Canute, who gaining to himself the sole sovereignty over the nation, made it his first business to repair the injuries which had been done to the churches and monasteries in this kingdom, by his father's and his own wars. (fn. 9)

 

As for this church, archbishop Ægelnoth, who presided over it from the year 1020 to the year 1038, began and finished the repair, or rather the rebuilding of it, assisted in it by the royal munificence of the king, (fn. 10) who in 1023 presented his crown of gold to this church, and restored to it the port of Sandwich, with its liberties. (fn. 11) Notwithstanding this, in less than forty years afterwards, when Lanfranc soon after the Norman conquest came to the see, he found this church reduced almost to nothing by fire, and dilapidations; for Eadmer says, it had been consumed by a third conflagration, prior to the year of his advancement to it, in which fire almost all the antient records of the privileges of it had perished. (fn. 12)

 

The same writer has given us a description of this old church, as it was before Lanfranc came to the see; by which we learn, that at the east end there was an altar adjoining to the wall of the church, of rough unhewn stone, cemented with mortar, erected by archbishop Odo, for a repository of the body of Wilfrid, archbishop of York, which Odo had translated from Rippon hither, giving it here the highest place; at a convenient distance from this, westward, there was another altar, dedicated to Christ our Saviour, at which divine service was daily celebrated. In this altar was inclosed the head of St. Swithin, with many other relics, which archbishop Alphage brought with him from Winchester. Passing from this altar westward, many steps led down to the choir and nave, which were both even, or upon the same level. At the bottom of the steps, there was a passage into the undercroft, under all the east part of the church. (fn. 13) At the east end of which, was an altar, in which was inclosed, according to old tradition, the head of St. Furseus. From hence by a winding passage, at the west end of it, was the tomb of St. Dunstan, (fn. 14) but separated from the undercroft by a strong stone wall; over the tomb was erected a monument, pyramid wife, and at the head of it an altar, (fn. 15) for the mattin service. Between these steps, or passage into the undercroft and the nave, was the choir, (fn. 16) which was separated from the nave by a fair and decent partition, to keep off the crowds of people that usually were in the body of the church, so that the singing of the chanters in the choir might not be disturbed. About the middle of the length of the nave, were two towers or steeples, built without the walls; one on the south, and the other on the north side. In the former was the altar of St. Gregory, where was an entrance into the church by the south door, and where law controversies and pleas concerning secular matters were exercised. (fn. 17) In the latter, or north tower, was a passage for the monks into the church, from the monastery; here were the cloysters, where the novices were instructed in their religious rules and offices, and where the monks conversed together. In this tower was the altar of St. Martin. At the west end of the church was a chapel, dedicated to the blessed Virgin Mary, to which there was an ascent by steps, and at the east end of it an altar, dedicated to her, in which was inclosed the head of St. Astroburta the Virgin; and at the western part of it was the archbishop's pontifical chair, made of large stones, compacted together with mortar; a fair piece of work, and placed at a convenient distance from the altar, close to the wall of the church. (fn. 18)

 

To return now to archbishop Lanfranc, who was sent for from Normandy in 1073, being the fourth year of the Conqueror's reign, to fill this see, a time, when a man of a noble spirit, equal to the laborious task he was to undertake, was wanting especially for this church; and that he was such, the several great works which were performed by him, were incontestable proofs, as well as of his great and generous mind. At the first sight of the ruinous condition of this church, says the historian, the archbishop was struck with astonishment, and almost despaired of seeing that and the monastery re edified; but his care and perseverance raised both in all its parts anew, and that in a novel and more magnificent kind and form of structure, than had been hardly in any place before made use of in this kingdom, which made it a precedent and pattern to succeeding structures of this kind; (fn. 19) and new monasteries and churches were built after the example of it; for it should be observed, that before the coming of the Normans most of the churches and monasteries in this kingdom were of wood; (all the monasteries in my realm, says king Edgar, in his charter to the abbey of Malmesbury, dated anno 974, to the outward sight are nothing but worm-eaten and rotten timber and boards) but after the Norman conquest, such timber fabrics grew out of use, and gave place to stone buildings raised upon arches; a form of structure introduced into general use by that nation, and in these parts surnished with stone from Caen, in Normandy. (fn. 20) After this fashion archbishop Lanfranc rebuilt the whole church from the foundation, with the palace and monastery, the wall which encompassed the court, and all the offices belonging to the monastery within the wall, finishing the whole nearly within the compass of seven years; (fn. 21) besides which, he furnished the church with ornaments and rich vestments; after which, the whole being perfected, he altered the name of it, by a dedication of it to the Holy Trinity; whereas, before it was called the church of our Saviour, or Christ-church, and from the above time it bore (as by Domesday book appears) the name of the church of the Holy Trinity; this new church being built on the same spot on which the antient one stood, though on a far different model.

 

After Lanfranc's death, archbishop Anselm succeeded in the year 1093, to the see of Canterbury, and must be esteemed a principal benefactor to this church; for though his time was perplexed with a continued series of troubles, of which both banishment and poverty made no small part, which in a great measure prevented him from bestowing that cost on his church, which he would otherwise have done, yet it was through his patronage and protection, and through his care and persuasions, that the fabric of it, begun and perfected by his predecessor, became enlarged and rose to still greater splendor. (fn. 22)

 

In order to carry this forward, upon the vacancy of the priory, he constituted Ernulph and Conrad, the first in 1104, the latter in 1108, priors of this church; to whose care, being men of generous and noble minds, and of singular skill in these matters, he, during his troubles, not only committed the management of this work, but of all his other concerns during his absence.

 

Probably archbishop Anselm, on being recalled from banishment on king Henry's accession to the throne, had pulled down that part of the church built by Lanfranc, from the great tower in the middle of it to the east end, intending to rebuild it upon a still larger and more magnificent plan; when being borne down by the king's displeasure, he intrusted prior Ernulph with the work, who raised up the building with such splendor, says Malmesbury, that the like was not to be seen in all England; (fn. 23) but the short time Ernulph continued in this office did not permit him to see his undertaking finished. (fn. 24) This was left to his successor Conrad, who, as the obituary of Christ church informs us, by his great industry, magnificently perfected the choir, which his predecessor had left unfinished, (fn. 25) adorning it with curious pictures, and enriching it with many precious ornaments. (fn. 26)

 

This great undertaking was not entirely compleated at the death of archbishop Anselm, which happened in 1109, anno 9 Henry I. nor indeed for the space of five years afterwards, during which the see of Canterbury continued vacant; when being finished, in honour of its builder, and on account of its more than ordinary beauty, it gained the name of the glorious choir of Conrad. (fn. 27)

 

After the see of Canterbury had continued thus vacant for five years, Ralph, or as some call him, Rodulph, bishop of Rochester, was translated to it in the year 1114, at whose coming to it, the church was dedicated anew to the Holy Trinity, the name which had been before given to it by Lanfranc. (fn. 28) The only particular description we have of this church when thus finished, is from Gervas, the monk of this monastery, and that proves imperfect, as to the choir of Lanfranc, which had been taken down soon after his death; (fn. 29) the following is his account of the nave, or western part of it below the choir, being that which had been erected by archbishop Lanfranc, as has been before mentioned. From him we learn, that the west end, where the chapel of the Virgin Mary stood before, was now adorned with two stately towers, on the top of which were gilded pinnacles. The nave or body was supported by eight pair of pillars. At the east end of the nave, on the north side, was an oratory, dedicated in honor to the blessed Virgin, in lieu, I suppose, of the chapel, that had in the former church been dedicated to her at the west end. Between the nave and the choir there was built a great tower or steeple, as it were in the centre of the whole fabric; (fn. 30) under this tower was erected the altar of the Holy Cross; over a partition, which separated this tower from the nave, a beam was laid across from one side to the other of the church; upon the middle of this beam was fixed a great cross, between the images of the Virgin Mary and St. John, and between two cherubims. The pinnacle on the top of this tower, was a gilded cherub, and hence it was called the angel steeple; a name it is frequently called by at this day. (fn. 31)

 

This great tower had on each side a cross isle, called the north and south wings, which were uniform, of the same model and dimensions; each of them had a strong pillar in the middle for a support to the roof, and each of them had two doors or passages, by which an entrance was open to the east parts of the church. At one of these doors there was a descent by a few steps into the undercroft; at the other, there was an ascent by many steps into the upper parts of the church, that is, the choir, and the isles on each side of it. Near every one of these doors or passages, an altar was erected; at the upper door in the south wing, there was an altar in honour of All Saints; and at the lower door there was one of St. Michael; and before this altar on the south side was buried archbishop Fleologild; and on the north side, the holy Virgin Siburgis, whom St. Dunstan highly admired for her sanctity. In the north isle, by the upper door, was the altar of St. Blaze; and by the lower door, that of St. Benedict. In this wing had been interred four archbishops, Adelm and Ceolnoth, behind the altar, and Egelnoth and Wlfelm before it. At the entrance into this wing, Rodulph and his successor William Corboil, both archbishops, were buried. (fn. 32)

 

Hence, he continues, we go up by some steps into the great tower, and before us there is a door and steps leading down into the south wing, and on the right hand a pair of folding doors, with stairs going down into the nave of the church; but without turning to any of these, let us ascend eastward, till by several more steps we come to the west end of Conrad's choir; being now at the entrance of the choir, Gervas tells us, that he neither saw the choir built by Lanfranc, nor found it described by any one; that Eadmer had made mention of it, without giving any account of it, as he had done of the old church, the reason of which appears to be, that Lanfranc's choir did not long survive its founder, being pulled down as before-mentioned, by archbishop Anselm; so that it could not stand more than twenty years; therefore the want of a particular description of it will appear no great defect in the history of this church, especially as the deficiency is here supplied by Gervas's full relation of the new choir of Conrad, built instead of it; of which, whoever desires to know the whole architecture and model observed in the fabric, the order, number, height and form of the pillars and windows, may know the whole of it from him. The roof of it, he tells us, (fn. 33) was beautified with curious paintings representing heaven; (fn. 34) in several respects it was agreeable to the present choir, the stalls were large and framed of carved wood. In the middle of it, there hung a gilded crown, on which were placed four and twenty tapers of wax. From the choir an ascent of three steps led to the presbiterium, or place for the presbiters; here, he says, it would be proper to stop a little and take notice of the high altar, which was dedicated to the name of CHRIST. It was placed between two other altars, the one of St. Dunstan, the other of St. Alphage; at the east corners of the high altar were fixed two pillars of wood, beautified with silver and gold; upon these pillars was placed a beam, adorned with gold, which reached across the church, upon it there were placed the glory, (fn. 35) the images of St. Dunstan and St. Alphage, and seven chests or coffers overlaid with gold, full of the relics of many saints. Between those pillars was a cross gilded all over, and upon the upper beam of the cross were set sixty bright crystals.

 

Beyond this, by an ascent of eight steps towards the east, behind the altar, was the archiepiscopal throne, which Gervas calls the patriarchal chair, made of one stone; in this chair, according to the custom of the church, the archbishop used to sit, upon principal festivals, in his pontifical ornaments, whilst the solemn offices of religion were celebrated, until the consecration of the host, when he came down to the high altar, and there performed the solemnity of consecration. Still further, eastward, behind the patriarchal chair, (fn. 36) was a chapel in the front of the whole church, in which was an altar, dedicated to the Holy Trinity; behind which were laid the bones of two archbishops, Odo of Canterbury, and Wilfrid of York; by this chapel on the south side near the wall of the church, was laid the body of archbishop Lanfranc, and on the north side, the body of archbishop Theobald. Here it is to be observed, that under the whole east part of the church, from the angel steeple, there was an undercrost or crypt, (fn. 37) in which were several altars, chapels and sepulchres; under the chapel of the Trinity before-mentioned, were two altars, on the south side, the altar of St. Augustine, the apostle of the English nation, by which archbishop Athelred was interred. On the north side was the altar of St. John Baptist, by which was laid the body of archbishop Eadsin; under the high altar was the chapel and altar of the blessed Virgin Mary, to whom the whole undercroft was dedicated.

 

To return now, he continues, to the place where the bresbyterium and choir meet, where on each side there was a cross isle (as was to be seen in his time) which might be called the upper south and north wings; on the east side of each of these wings were two half circular recesses or nooks in the wall, arched over after the form of porticoes. Each of them had an altar, and there was the like number of altars under them in the crost. In the north wing, the north portico had the altar of St. Martin, by which were interred the bodies of two archbishops, Wlfred on the right, and Living on the left hand; under it in the croft, was the altar of St. Mary Magdalen. The other portico in this wing, had the altar of St. Stephen, and by it were buried two archbishops, Athelard on the left hand, and Cuthbert on the right; in the croft under it, was the altar of St. Nicholas. In the south wing, the north portico had the altar of St. John the Evangelist, and by it the bodies of Æthelgar and Aluric, archbishops, were laid. In the croft under it was the altar of St. Paulinus, by which the body of archbishop Siricius was interred. In the south portico was the altar of St. Gregory, by which were laid the corps of the two archbishops Bregwin and Plegmund. In the croft under it was the altar of St. Owen, archbishop of Roan, and underneath in the croft, not far from it the altar of St. Catherine.

 

Passing from these cross isles eastward there were two towers, one on the north, the other on the south side of the church. In the tower on the north side was the altar of St. Andrew, which gave name to the tower; under it, in the croft, was the altar of the Holy Innocents; the tower on the south side had the altar of St. Peter and St. Paul, behind which the body of St. Anselm was interred, which afterwards gave name both to the altar and tower (fn. 38) (now called St. Anselm's). The wings or isles on each side of the choir had nothing in particular to be taken notice of.— Thus far Gervas, from whose description we in particular learn, where several of the bodies of the old archbishops were deposited, and probably the ashes of some of them remain in the same places to this day.

 

As this building, deservedly called the glorious choir of Conrad, was a magnificent work, so the undertaking of it at that time will appear almost beyond example, especially when the several circumstances of it are considered; but that it was carried forward at the archbishop's cost, exceeds all belief. It was in the discouraging reign of king William Rufus, a prince notorious in the records of history, for all manner of sacrilegious rapine, that archbishop Anselm was promoted to this see; when he found the lands and revenues of this church so miserably wasted and spoiled, that there was hardly enough left for his bare subsistence; who, in the first years that he sat in the archiepiscopal chair, struggled with poverty, wants and continual vexations through the king's displeasure, (fn. 39) and whose three next years were spent in banishment, during all which time he borrowed money for his present maintenance; who being called home by king Henry I. at his coming to the crown, laboured to pay the debts he had contracted during the time of his banishment, and instead of enjoying that tranquility and ease he hoped for, was, within two years afterwards, again sent into banishment upon a fresh displeasure conceived against him by the king, who then seized upon all the revenues of the archbishopric, (fn. 40) which he retained in his own hands for no less than four years.

 

Under these hard circumstances, it would have been surprizing indeed, that the archbishop should have been able to carry on so great a work, and yet we are told it, as a truth, by the testimonies of history; but this must surely be understood with the interpretation of his having been the patron, protector and encourager, rather than the builder of this work, which he entrusted to the care and management of the priors Ernulph and Conrad, and sanctioned their employing, as Lanfranc had done before, the revenues and stock of the church to this use. (fn. 41)

 

In this state as above-mentioned, without any thing material happening to it, this church continued till about the year 1130, anno 30 Henry I. when it seems to have suffered some damage by a fire; (fn. 42) but how much, there is no record left to inform us; however it could not be of any great account, for it was sufficiently repaired, and that mostly at the cost of archbishop Corboil, who then sat in the chair of this see, (fn. 43) before the 4th of May that year, on which day, being Rogation Sunday, the bishops performed the dedication of it with great splendor and magnificence, such, says Gervas, col. 1664, as had not been heard of since the dedication of the temple of Solomon; the king, the queen, David, king of Scots, all the archbishops, and the nobility of both kingdoms being present at it, when this church's former name was restored again, being henceforward commonly called Christ-church. (fn. 44)

 

Among the manuscripts of Trinity college library, in Cambridge, in a very curious triple psalter of St. Jerome, in Latin, written by the monk Eadwyn, whose picture is at the beginning of it, is a plan or drawing made by him, being an attempt towards a representation of this church and monastery, as they stood between the years 1130 and 1174; which makes it probable, that he was one of the monks of it, and the more so, as the drawing has not any kind of relation to the plalter or sacred hymns contained in the manuscript.

 

His plan, if so it may be called, for it is neither such, nor an upright, nor a prospect, and yet something of all together; but notwithstanding this rudeness of the draftsman, it shews very plain that it was intended for this church and priory, and gives us a very clear knowledge, more than we have been able to learn from any description we have besides, of what both were at the above period of time. (fn. 45)

 

Forty-four years after this dedication, on the 5th of September, anno 1174, being the 20th year of king Henry II.'s reign, a fire happened, which consumed great part of this stately edifice, namely, the whole choir, from the angel steeple to the east end of the church, together with the prior's lodgings, the chapel of the Virgin Mary, the infirmary, and some other offices belonging to the monastery; but the angel steeple, the lower cross isles, and the nave appear to have received no material injury from the flames. (fn. 46) The narrative of this accident is told by Gervas, the monk of Canterbury, so often quoted before, who was an eye witness of this calamity, as follows:

 

Three small houses in the city near the old gate of the monastery took fire by accident, a strong south wind carried the flakes of fire to the top of the church, and lodged them between the joints of the lead, driving them to the timbers under it; this kindled a fire there, which was not discerned till the melted lead gave a free passage for the flames to appear above the church, and the wind gaining by this means a further power of increasing them, drove them inwardly, insomuch that the danger became immediately past all possibility of relief. The timber of the roof being all of it on fire, fell down into the choir, where the stalls of the manks, made of large pieces of carved wood, afforded plenty of fuel to the flames, and great part of the stone work, through the vehement heat of the fire, was so weakened, as to be brought to irreparable ruin, and besides the fabric itself, the many rich ornaments in the church were devoured by the flames.

 

The choir being thus laid in ashes, the monks removed from amidst the ruins, the bodies of the two saints, whom they called patrons of the church, the archbishops Dunstan and Alphage, and deposited them by the altar of the great cross, in the nave of the church; (fn. 47) and from this time they celebrated the daily religious offices in the oratory of the blessed Virgin Mary in the nave, and continued to do so for more than five years, when the choir being re edified, they returned to it again. (fn. 48)

 

Upon this destruction of the church, the prior and convent, without any delay, consulted on the most speedy and effectual method of rebuilding it, resolving to finish it in such a manner, as should surpass all the former choirs of it, as well in beauty as size and magnificence. To effect this, they sent for the most skilful architects that could be found either in France or England. These surveyed the walls and pillars, which remained standing, but they found great part of them so weakened by the fire, that they could no ways be built upon with any safety; and it was accordingly resolved, that such of them should be taken down; a whole year was spent in doing this, and in providing materials for the new building, for which they sent abroad for the best stone that could be procured; Gervas has given a large account, (fn. 49) how far this work advanced year by year; what methods and rules of architecture were observed, and other particulars relating to the rebuilding of this church; all which the curious reader may consult at his leisure; it will be sufficient to observe here, that the new building was larger in height and length, and more beautiful in every respect, than the choir of Conrad; for the roof was considerably advanced above what it was before, and was arched over with stone; whereas before it was composed of timber and boards. The capitals of the pillars were now beautified with different sculptures of carvework; whereas, they were before plain, and six pillars more were added than there were before. The former choir had but one triforium, or inner gallery, but now there were two made round it, and one in each side isle and three in the cross isles; before, there were no marble pillars, but such were now added to it in abundance. In forwarding this great work, the monks had spent eight years, when they could proceed no further for want of money; but a fresh supply coming in from the offerings at St. Thomas's tomb, so much more than was necessary for perfecting the repair they were engaged in, as encouraged them to set about a more grand design, which was to pull down the eastern extremity of the church, with the small chapel of the Holy Trinity adjoining to it, and to erect upon a stately undercroft, a most magnificent one instead of it, equally lofty with the roof of the church, and making a part of it, which the former one did not, except by a door into it; but this new chapel, which was dedicated likewise to the Holy Trinity, was not finished till some time after the rest of the church; at the east end of this chapel another handsome one, though small, was afterwards erected at the extremity of the whole building, since called Becket's crown, on purpose for an altar and the reception of some part of his relics; (fn. 50) further mention of which will be made hereafter.

 

The eastern parts of this church, as Mr. Gostling observes, have the appearance of much greater antiquity than what is generally allowed to them; and indeed if we examine the outside walls and the cross wings on each side of the choir, it will appear, that the whole of them was not rebuilt at the time the choir was, and that great part of them was suffered to remain, though altered, added to, and adapted as far as could be, to the new building erected at that time; the traces of several circular windows and other openings, which were then stopped up, removed, or altered, still appearing on the walls both of the isles and the cross wings, through the white-wash with which they are covered; and on the south side of the south isle, the vaulting of the roof as well as the triforium, which could not be contrived so as to be adjusted to the places of the upper windows, plainly shew it. To which may be added, that the base or foot of one of the westernmost large pillars of the choir on the north side, is strengthened with a strong iron band round it, by which it should seem to have been one of those pillars which had been weakened by the fire, but was judged of sufficient firmness, with this precaution, to remain for the use of the new fabric.

 

The outside of this part of the church is a corroborating proof of what has been mentioned above, as well in the method, as in the ornaments of the building.— The outside of it towards the south, from St. Michael's chapel eastward, is adorned with a range of small pillars, about six inches diameter, and about three feet high, some with santastic shasts and capitals, others with plain ones; these support little arches, which intersect each other; and this chain or girdle of pillars is continued round the small tower, the eastern cross isle and the chapel of St. Anselm, to the buildings added in honour of the Holy Trinity, and St. Thomas Becket, where they leave off. The casing of St. Michael's chapel has none of them, but the chapel of the Virgin Mary, answering to it on the north side of the church, not being fitted to the wall, shews some of them behind it; which seems as if they had been continued before, quite round the eastern parts of the church.

 

These pillars, which rise from about the level of the pavement, within the walls above them, are remarkably plain and bare of ornaments; but the tower above mentioned and its opposite, as soon as they rise clear of the building, are enriched with stories of this colonade, one above another, up to the platform from whence their spires rise; and the remains of the two larger towers eastward, called St. Anselm's, and that answering to it on the north side of the church, called St. Andrew's are decorated much after the same manner, as high as they remain at present.

 

At the time of the before-mentioned fire, which so fatally destroyed the upper part of this church, the undercrost, with the vaulting over it, seems to have remained entire, and unhurt by it.

 

The vaulting of the undercrost, on which the floor of the choir and eastern parts of the church is raised, is supported by pillars, whose capitals are as various and fantastical as those of the smaller ones described before, and so are their shafts, some being round, others canted, twisted, or carved, so that hardly any two of them are alike, except such as are quite plain.

 

These, I suppose, may be concluded to be of the same age, and if buildings in the same stile may be conjectured to be so from thence, the antiquity of this part of the church may be judged, though historians have left us in the dark in relation to it.

 

In Leland's Collectanea, there is an account and description of a vault under the chancel of the antient church of St. Peter, in Oxford, called Grymbald's crypt, being allowed by all, to have been built by him; (fn. 51) Grymbald was one of those great and accomplished men, whom king Alfred invited into England about the year 885, to assist him in restoring Christianity, learning and the liberal arts. (fn. 52) Those who compare the vaults or undercrost of the church of Canterbury, with the description and prints given of Grymbald's crypt, (fn. 53) will easily perceive, that two buildings could hardly have been erected more strongly resembling each other, except that this at Canterbury is larger, and more pro fusely decorated with variety of fancied ornaments, the shafts of several of the pillars here being twisted, or otherwise varied, and many of the captials exactly in the same grotesque taste as those in Grymbald's crypt. (fn. 54) Hence it may be supposed, that those whom archbishop Lanfranc employed as architects and designers of his building at Canterbury, took their model of it, at least of this part of it, from that crypt, and this undercrost now remaining is the same, as was originally built by him, as far eastward, as to that part which begins under the chapel of the Holy Trinity, where it appears to be of a later date, erected at the same time as the chapel. The part built by Lanfranc continues at this time as firm and entire, as it was at the very building of it, though upwards of seven hundred years old. (fn. 55)

 

But to return to the new building; though the church was not compleatly finished till the end of the year 1184, yet it was so far advanced towards it, that, in 1180, on April 19, being Easter eve, (fn. 56) the archbishop, prior and monks entered the new choir, with a solemn procession, singing Te Deum, for their happy return to it. Three days before which they had privately, by night, carried the bodies of St. Dunstan and St. Alphage to the places prepared for them near the high altar. The body likewise of queen Edive (which after the fire had been removed from the north cross isle, where it lay before, under a stately gilded shrine) to the altar of the great cross, was taken up, carried into the vestry, and thence to the altar of St. Martin, where it was placed under the coffin of archbishop Livinge. In the month of July following the altar of the Holy Trinity was demolished, and the bodies of those archbishops, which had been laid in that part of the church, were removed to other places. Odo's body was laid under St. Dunstan's and Wilfrid's under St. Alphage's; Lanfranc's was deposited nigh the altar of St. Martin, and Theobald's at that of the blessed Virgin, in the nave of the church, (fn. 57) under a marble tomb; and soon afterwards the two archbishops, on the right and left hand of archbishop Becket in the undercrost, were taken up and placed under the altar of St. Mary there. (fn. 58)

 

After a warning so terrible, as had lately been given, it seemed most necessary to provide against the danger of fire for the time to come; the flames, which had so lately destroyed a considerable part of the church and monastery, were caused by some small houses, which had taken fire at a small distance from the church.— There still remained some other houses near it, which belonged to the abbot and convent of St. Augustine; for these the monks of Christ-church created, by an exchange, which could not be effected till the king interposed, and by his royal authority, in a manner, compelled the abbot and convent to a composition for this purpose, which was dated in the year 1177, that was three years after the late fire of this church. (fn. 59)

 

These houses were immediately pulled down, and it proved a providential and an effectual means of preserving the church from the like calamity; for in the year 1180, on May 22, this new choir, being not then compleated, though it had been used the month be fore, as has been already mentioned, there happened a fire in the city, which burnt down many houses, and the flames bent their course towards the church, which was again in great danger; but the houses near it being taken away, the fire was stopped, and the church escaped being burnt again. (fn. 60)

 

Although there is no mention of a new dedication of the church at this time, yet the change made in the name of it has been thought by some to imply a formal solemnity of this kind, as it appears to have been from henceforth usually called the church of St. Thomas the Martyr, and to have continued so for above 350 years afterwards.

 

New names to churches, it is true. have been usually attended by formal consecrations of them; and had there been any such solemnity here, undoubtedly the same would not have passed by unnoticed by every historian, the circumstance of it must have been notorious, and the magnificence equal at least to the other dedications of this church, which have been constantly mentioned by them; but here was no need of any such ceremony, for although the general voice then burst forth to honour this church with the name of St. Thomas, the universal object of praise and adoration, then stiled the glorious martyr, yet it reached no further, for the name it had received at the former dedication, notwithstanding this common appellation of it, still remained in reality, and it still retained invariably in all records and writings, the name of Christ church only, as appears by many such remaining among the archives of the dean and chapter; and though on the seal of this church, which was changed about this time; the counter side of it had a representation of Becket's martyrdom, yet on the front of it was continued that of the church, and round it an inscription with the former name of Christ church; which seal remained in force till the dissolution of the priory.

 

It may not be improper to mention here some transactions, worthy of observation, relating to this favorite saint, which passed from the time of his being murdered, to that of his translation to the splendid shrine prepared for his relics.

 

Archbishop Thomas Becket was barbarously murdered in this church on Dec. 29, 1170, being the 16th year of king Henry II. and his body was privately buried towards the east end of the undercrost. The monks tell us, that about the Easter following, miracles began to be wrought by him, first at his tomb, then in the undercrost, and in every part of the whole fabric of the church; afterwards throughout England, and lastly, throughout the rest of the world. (fn. 61) The same of these miracles procured him the honour of a formal canonization from pope Alexander III. whose bull for that purpose is dated March 13, in the year 1172. (fn. 62) This declaration of the pope was soon known in all places, and the reports of his miracles were every where sounded abroad. (fn. 63)

 

Hereupon crowds of zealots, led on by a phrenzy of devotion, hastened to kneel at his tomb. In 1177, Philip, earl of Flanders, came hither for that purpose, when king Henry met and had a conference with him at Canterbury. (fn. 64) In June 1178, king Henry returning from Normandy, visited the sepulchre of this new saint; and in July following, William, archbishop of Rhemes, came from France, with a large retinue, to perform his vows to St. Thomas of Canterbury, where the king met him and received him honourably. In the year 1179, Lewis, king of France, came into England; before which neither he nor any of his predecessors had ever set foot in this kingdom. (fn. 65) He landed at Dover, where king Henry waited his arrival, and on August 23, the two kings came to Canterbury, with a great train of nobility of both nations, and were received with due honour and great joy, by the archbishop, with his com-provincial bishops, and the prior and the whole convent. (fn. 66)

 

King Lewis came in the manner and habit of a pilgrim, and was conducted to the tomb of St. Thomas by a solemn procession; he there offered his cup of gold and a royal precious stone, (fn. 67) and gave the convent a yearly rent for ever, of a hundred muids of wine, to be paid by himself and his successors; which grant was confirmed by his royal charter, under his seal, and delivered next day to the convent; (fn. 68) after he had staid here two, (fn. 69) or as others say, three days, (fn. 70) during which the oblations of gold and silver made were so great, that the relation of them almost exceeded credibility. (fn. 71) In 1181, king Henry, in his return from Normandy, again paid his devotions at this tomb. These visits were the early fruits of the adoration of the new sainted martyr, and these royal examples of kings and great persons were followed by multitudes, who crowded to present with full hands their oblations at his tomb.— Hence the convent was enabled to carry forward the building of the new choir, and they applied all this vast income to the fabric of the church, as the present case instantly required, for which they had the leave and consent of the archbishop, confirmed by the bulls of several succeeding popes. (fn. 72)

 

¶From the liberal oblations of these royal and noble personages at the tomb of St. Thomas, the expences of rebuilding the choir appear to have been in a great measure supplied, nor did their devotion and offerings to the new saint, after it was compleated, any ways abate, but, on the contrary, they daily increased; for in the year 1184, Philip, archbishop of Cologne, and Philip, earl of Flanders, came together to pay their vows at this tomb, and were met here by king Henry, who gave them an invitation to London. (fn. 73) In 1194, John, archbishop of Lions; in the year afterwards, John, archbishop of York; and in the year 1199, king John, performed their devotions at the foot of this tomb. (fn. 74) King Richard I. likewise, on his release from captivity in Germany, landing on the 30th of March at Sandwich, proceeded from thence, as an humble stranger on foot, towards Canterbury, to return his grateful thanks to God and St. Thomas for his release. (fn. 75) All these by name, with many nobles and multitudes of others, of all sorts and descriptions, visited the saint with humble adoration and rich oblations, whilst his body lay in the undercrost. In the mean time the chapel and altar at the upper part of the east end of the church, which had been formerly consecrated to the Holy Trinity, were demolished, and again prepared with great splendor, for the reception of this saint, who being now placed there, implanted his name not only on the chapel and altar, but on the whole church, which was from thenceforth known only by that of the church of St. Thomas the martyr.

  

On July 7, anno 1220, the remains of St. Thomas were translated from his tomb to his new shrine, with the greatest solemnity and rejoicings. Pandulph, the pope's legate, the archbishops of Canterbury and Rheims, and many bishops and abbots, carried the coffin on their shoulders, and placed it on the new shrine, and the king graced these solemnities with his royal presence. (fn. 76) The archbishop of Canterbury provided forage along all the road, between London and Canterbury, for the horses of all such as should come to them, and he caused several pipes and conduits to run with wine in different parts of the city. This, with the other expences arising during the time, was so great, that he left a debt on the see, which archbishop Boniface, his fourth successor in it, was hardly enabled to discharge.

 

¶The saint being now placed in his new repository, became the vain object of adoration to the deluded people, and afterwards numbers of licences were granted to strangers by the king, to visit this shrine. (fn. 77) The titles of glorious, of saint and martyr, were among those given to him; (fn. 78) such veneration had all people for his relics, that the religious of several cathedral churches and monasteries, used all their endeavours to obtain some of them, and thought themselves happy and rich in the possession of the smallest portion of them. (fn. 79) Besides this, there were erected and dedicated to his honour, many churches, chapels, altars and hospitals in different places, both in this kingdom and abroad. (fn. 80) Thus this saint, even whilst he lay in his obscure tomb in the undercroft, brought such large and constant supplies of money, as enabled the monks to finish this beautiful choir, and the eastern parts of the church; and when he was translated to the most exalted and honourable place in it, a still larger abundance of gain filled their coffers, which continued as a plentiful supply to them, from year to year, to the time of the reformation, and the final abolition of the priory itself.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol11/pp306-383

  

My poor dreams/

of love blessed /

in the best of joy you perished /

you arose proud but unfortunate /

like birds /

in the woods you perished.

 

Poveri sogni miei/

d'amor beati /

nel meglio del gioir siete periti /

sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati /

come gli uccelli /

nei boschi siete periti.

 

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Gesualdo Bufalino, an expert connoisseur of Sicily, wrote that the Sicilies are many, it is impossible to count them all, in Sicily "everything is mixed, changing, contradictory, as in the most composite of continents" ... and again " There is a "babba" Sicily, that is mild…a “crafty” Sicily, that is smart…there is a lazy Sicily and a frenetic one…”; but why so many Sicilies? Bufalino explained “because Sicily has had the good fortune to act as a link over the centuries between the great Western culture and the temptations of the desert and the sun, between reason and magic, the temperatures of feeling and the heat of passion. Sicily suffers from an excess of identity, and I don't know if it's a good thing or a bad thing." Even Leonard Sciascia, an immense Sicilian thinker, said "I continue to be convinced that Sicily offers the representation of many problems, of many contradictions, not only Italian but also European, to the point of being able to constitute the metaphor of today's world". This start to introduce the character whose life (and violent death) I wish to recall with some of my photographs (except for two images, belonging to the weekly "Epoca"), with information taken both from the WEB and from direct testimonies that I have collected in years, in summary a character who seems to embody the many faces of Sicily, his name is Salvatore Giuliano, known as the Bandit Giuliano; there are many Salvatore Giulianos, it changes according to who knew him, according to the many facts told by others or by himself (in his memoirs), he is described now as a "Robin Hood" with a noble heart, now as a ferocious brigand unscrupulous, but in any case, in this story, the use of all the "adverbs of doubt" that we know is always mandatory, because speaking of him, knowing the real truth is an illusion ... this is a story in which the pain of the many dead is the background. In speaking of him I will try to use almost telegraphic language. Salvatore Giuliano was born in Sicily in Montelepre (November 16, 1922), the son of a farmer who emigrated to America, and then returned to Sicily for the birth of his son; Salvatore soon left school to work in the fields, privately continuing to cultivate his studies. These are the years of the Second World War, the fascist regime has introduced bread rationing (the real problem is the grinding of wheat, with the mills controlled by the army, the Giulianos have a small clandestine mill), the clandestine trade in necessity becomes common, even Salvatore becomes a small smuggler, he is inexperienced when he is stopped with two sacks of wheat by two carabinieri and two country guards, they take everything from him including his documents, a distraction by the guards and quickly Salvatore tries to escape, the a few shots are fired at him, two hit him at his side, a carabiniere approaches him (Salvatore describes what happened in one of his memoirs) who is shot to death by him: from this moment on he will always be the Bandit Salvatore Giuliano ( or Turiddu, which in Sicilian means Salvatore). According to some Turiddu is a hero of the people, he hopes for a civil redemption of the Sicilian people, establishes relations with the political world, with the deviated secret services, with the Sicilian separatist movement whose initials are MIS (Sicilian Independent Movement) of which, also pushed by a colonel of the American army who deluded him that Sicily could be annexed as a state of the U.S.A. , joins his armed wing, the E.V.I.S. (Volunteer Army for Sicilian Independence), fighting with the rank of colonel against the Italian army in the two-year period 1945/46: the EVIS was commanded by the lawyer Antonio Canepa, who was killed on 17 June 1945 in a clash with the carabineer in the town of Randazzo. During this period the legend of the Bandit Giuliano was born, the peasants, the poor people in general, see in him a hope of redemption from a life of hardship and sacrifices, he is seen as a fiery lover with many fleeting stories, with women who join him in his lair by passing "the filter" of his men (he hosted a young Swedish journalist, Maria Cyjliakus, she was interested in interviewing him, with whom he also had a relationship), but he himself could reach to love the women while running many risks: in the collective imagination the idea of a brigand with a kind and good heart was developing, he often gave to the poor what he stole from the rich; but there was the dark and brutal side of his personality, he tended ambushes and assaults on the forces of order, he killed whoever he considered to be an informer of the carabinieri; the bandit was elusive, there were numerous ambushes and roundups from which he and his men managed to escape, indeed, every action carried out by the military was always followed by a retaliatory reaction, with the consequence that the killed soldiers always increased by more. The descending phase of Giuliano begins to appear on the horizon, the M.I.S. enters legality being recognized as belonging to the Sicilian Special Statute, Giuliano does not accept the agreement by continuing with his men to wage war against the state, in 1946 the new Italian government grants a pardon to the EVIS guerrillas, in this way Giuliano loses his army and his role as colonel (thus the female component of EVIS was dissolved too, with about 20 women, his sister Mariannina was also part of it); with the first institutional referendum the monarchy falls, the Republic is born, the peasant movement hopes for change and agrarian reform, the struggle in defense of their rights leads to the killing of trade unionists (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) whose instigators will never be discovered ; Giuliano establishes relations with the mafia, meets men of the institutions, leading to suspect that behind many (villainous) actions of Giuliano and behind his death, many responsibilities and mysteries are hidden, on which no light has yet been shed. We arrive on May 1, 1947, in the countryside of Portella della Ginestra near Piana degli Albanesi (PA), there is a large crowd of peasants gathered to celebrate Workers' Day, there are also many women and children, suddenly the The festive atmosphere is dramatically interrupted by the shots of a machine gun and other weapons of various kinds, including the launch of grenades, 11 people remain lifeless on the field (including two children), and many injured on whose number there is no concordance; the massacre began the "crisis of May 1947" with attacks on the headquarters of left-wing parties and labor chambers in the area, the reasons for which would be linked, it has been said ... to Giuliano's aversion to the Communists ... but also to the will of the mafia powers to maintain the old balance in the new institutional framework (editor's note: it seems that Giuliano a Portella only wanted to teach a lesson to Girolamo Li Causi, leader of the communists, who was warned of the ambush, and did not show up in Portella, in my opinion Giuliano's aforementioned aversion to the Communists does not stand up, he who always found warmth, protection and complicity precisely on the part of those peasants who were slaughtered; whoever organized the massacre was a criminal and refined mind, he frightened peasant movements, and at the same time decreed the unpopularity of the bandit Giuliano who saw scorched earth around him: mafia men extraneous to Giuliano's gang equipped with 9-gauge rifles fired, while the men of the the band had 6.5 caliber weapons, just as Giuliano's men did not possess grenade launchers; Giuliano tried to exculpate himself by writing his "Memorial on the events of Portella della Ginestra" in the newspapers, claiming that he was in possession of documents that would have demonstrated who were the real culprits of the massacre). The circle was tightening around Giuliano, the forces of order made use of the mafia to convince his trusted lieutenant Gaspare Pisciotta to collaborate with them, they made use of informants, such as Salvatore Ferreri, known as frà Diavolo, head of the anti-banditry forces was the colonel of the carabinieri Ugo Luca; on July 5, 1950 Salvatore Giuliano was killed, it seems there was a firefight with the carabinieri in the courtyard of the house of the lawyer. De Maria in Castelvetrano (TP), however it is a staging, the journalists who immediately rushed to the place where the body lies notice it, the blood impregnates the undershirt on the back, no blood comes out of several holes, on the side of the arm there is a " laceration of the skin" (as if the limb had been in contact with ice), one of the journalists who notices these and other details, Tommaso Besozzi, writes his journalistic article by titling it "certainly there is only that he died ” (l'Europeo n. 29, year 1950), actually to kill him while he was sleeping with a pistol shot, perhaps stunned by a drug put in the wine, it would have been his most trusted man, Gaspare Pisciotta, who was subsequently arrested, and during the Viterbo trial he would scream from the cage "we were one body, bandits, police and mafia, like the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" , he is ready to name names, revelations, but he won't have time, inside the Ucciardone prison in Palermo, to deliver a lethal dose of strychnine put in a medicine prescribed for his tuberculosis (not in coffee) he will kill him sooner trying to vomit. The story does not seem to have to end when, following a report from Professor Giuseppe Casarrubea, an important historian, who had Giuliano's body exhumed in 2010 with his complaint to the Public Prosecutor's Office, assuming that the tomb held the corpse of a double, the However, DNA tests would have shown a genetic profile compatible with that of a nephew of Giuliano. On Salvatore's tomb, a month later, the verses sent by letter to his mother by a woman who signed herself “Santuzza” were carved, verses which declared that she had received them personally from her son Salvatore: “My poor dreams/of love blessed /in the best of joy you perished /you arose proud butunfortunate/like birds /in the woods you perished”. Santuzza was the pseudonym of Maddalena Lo Giudice, when she was young she is described as a beautiful, shy, reserved girl, she was the daughter of the Podestà of her town (during the fascist regime, the Podestà was the head of the municipal administration), it seems they met in a hospital in Catania, each visiting an acquaintance of their own, Maddalena would have had from Giuliano: a son (she was subjected to a gynecological examination to ascertain its veracity against her will), a box with valuables, and a memorial, in which Giuliano would have wrote very important things about his relationships with "men of the state and not"; Maddalena later said that she had handed everything over to a trusted person, who would have bricked everything up, later perhaps frightened by the great clamor that had arisen around her, in a journalistic interview she declared that she had dreamed and invented everything… (note of the editor: I have always tried much emotion for this poor woman, it would be interesting to be able to trace a psychological profile, her father was the Podestà of the town, always benefiting from the doubt, as in all this story, people told me that His father as Podestà took away from the poor people even what little they had, who knows if the poor Maddalena fell in love with Giuliano also because he represented her antithesis, giving to the poor what she took away from the rich people...), Maddalena went to give birth in secret from the well-meaning eyes of the town (not being a married woman it would have created a scandal) in Calabria, that son to protect him was immediately placed in an orphanage (all the forces of order in Sicily were looking for the bandit Giuliano, who knows what would have happened if he had come to know of a son of him ..! they would have used it as one does with a lamb tied to a post, waiting for the arrival of the fair…); upon Giuliano's death, this woman was joined by Salvatore's mother (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) and sister (Mariannina Giuliano), to have all that Salvatore had left to Maddalena, who certainly had sworn not to give anyone what she had received from him, certainly until when Maddalena would have kept "the treasure" hidden with her (certainly not the jewels, the true value was her memorial!), no one would have hurt her; however, Maddalena took this secret of hers with her to her grave. In her old age Maddalena lived secluded, she was a solitary type, she had to resort to dialysis for a serious kidney infection, for which she had to be accompanied several times a week by a driver to the hospital, she had severe pain for which she had to resort to powerful analgesics, the only ones who gave her any affection were her many dogs, the only ones who managed to reassure her, she never had the affection of that only son she had from Salvatore, of whom nothing was ever known (there were a couple of characters who declared themselves the children of the bandit, but nothing has ever been ascertained). In conclusion, I learned of a Sicilian film operator, who worked for Incom Week (it was an Italian newsreel, distributed weekly in cinemas), who at the news of the killing of the bandit Giuliano (like many journalists) immediately went to Castelvetrano to the house of the lawyer De Maria, where he allegedly found Salvatore's body, he said that when Salvatore's mother arrived, she kissed him in a heartbreaking, terribly moving way, including the parts covered in blood, that Incom operator said, that the emotion was so great for him to seeing that Mother …he did not have the courage to continue filming: I would like to end by saying that the tremendous pain of that Mother was the tremendous pain of All those Mothers who saw their son (or their husbands) to perish in that so dark not so far period of history of Sicily.

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Scriveva Gesualdo Bufalino, esperto conoscitore della Sicilia, che le Sicilie sono tante, impossibile contarle tutte, in Sicilia “tutto è mischiato, cangiante, contraddittorio, come nel più composito dei continenti”…ed ancora ” Vi è una Sicilia “babba”, cioè mite…una Sicilia “sperta”, cioè furba…vi è una Sicilia pigra ed una frenetica…”; ma come mai così tante Sicilie? Bufalino spiegava “perché la Sicilia ha avuto la sorte di ritrovarsi a far da cerniera nei secoli fra la grande cultura occidentale e le tentazioni del deserto e del sole, tra la ragione e la magia, le temperie del sentimento e le canicole della passione. Soffre, la Sicilia, di un eccesso d'identità, né so se sia un bene o sia un male.” Anche Sciascia, immenso pensatore siciliano, diceva “Continuo ad essere convinto che la Sicilia offre la rappresentazione di tanti problemi, di tante contraddizioni, non solo italiani ma anche europei, al punto da poter costituire la metafora del mondo odierno”. Questo incipit per introdurre il personaggio del quale desidero rievocarne la vita (e la morte violenta) con alcune mie fotografie (tranne due immagini, appartenenti al settimanale “Epoca”), con notizie prese sia dal WEB, sia da testimonianze dirette che ho raccolto negli anni, in sintesi un personaggio che sembra incarnare i tanti volti della Sicilia, lui si chiama Salvatore Giuliano, noto come il Bandito Giuliano; sono tanti i Salvatore Giuliano, cambia in base a chi lo conobbe, in base ai tantissimi fatti raccontati da altri o da lui stesso (nei suoi memoriali), viene descritto ora come un “Robin Hood” dal cuore nobile, ora come un feroce brigante privo di scrupoli, però in ogni caso, in questa storia, è sempre obbligatorio l’uso di tutti gli “avverbi di dubbio o dubitativi” che conosciamo, perché parlando di lui conoscere la vera verità è una utopia…una vicenda questa, nella quale il dolore dei tanti morti, fa da sfondo. Nel parlarne cercherò di adoperare un linguaggio quasi telegrafico. Salvatore Giuliano nasce in Sicilia a Montelepre (il 16 novembre 1922), figlio di un contadino emigrato in America, e poi rientrato in Sicilia per la nascita del figlio; Salvatore abbandonò presto la scuola per lavorare nei campi, continuando privatamente a coltivare i suoi studi. Sono gli anni della seconda guerra mondiale, il regime fascista ha introdotto il razionamento del pane (il vero problema è la macinazione del grano, coi mulini controllati dall’esercito, i Giuliano hanno un piccolo mulino clandestino), il commercio clandestino degli alimenti di prima necessità diviene comune, anche Salvatore diviene un piccolo contrabbandiere, è inesperto quando viene fermato con due sacchi di grano da due carabinieri e da due guardie campestri, gli prendono tutto incluso i suoi documenti, una distrazione delle guardie e lestamente Salvatore tenta la fuga, gli vengono sparati contro alcuni colpi, due lo raggiungono ad un fianco, gli si avvicina un carabiniere (Salvatore descrive l’accaduto in un suo memoriale) che viene da lui colpito a morte: da questo momento in poi sarà per sempre il Bandito Salvatore Giuliano (o Turiddu, che in siciliano significa Salvatore). Secondo alcuni Turiddu è un eroe del popolo, egli spera in un riscatto civile del popolo siciliano, allaccia rapporti col mondo politico, coi servizi segreti deviati, col movimento separatista siciliano la cui sigla è MIS (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano) del quale, spinto anche da un colonnello dell’esercito americano che lo illuse che la Sicilia poteva essere annessa come stato degli U.S.A. , entra a far parte del suo braccio armato, l’E.V.I.S. (Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza Siciliana), combattendo col grado di colonnello contro l’esercito italiano nel biennio 1945/46: l’EVIS era comandato dall’avv. Antonio Canepa, che viene ucciso il 17 giugno del 1945 in uno scontro coi carabinieri nel paese di Randazzo. Durante questo periodo nasce la leggenda del Bandito Giuliano, i contadini, la povera gente in generale, vede in lui una speranza di riscatto di una vita di stenti e di sacrifici, viene visto come un focoso amante dalle tante fugaci storie, con donne che lo raggiungono nel suo covo oltrepassando “il filtro” dei suoi uomini (ospitò una giovane giornalista svedese, Maria Cyjliakus, interessata ad intervistarlo, con la quale ebbe anche una relazione), ma poteva egli stesso raggiungere le amate pur correndo molti rischi: nell’immaginario collettivo si andava maturando l’idea di un brigante dal cuore gentile e buono, egli spesso donava ai poveri quello che sottraeva ai ricchi; però c’era il lato oscuro e brutale della sua personalità, egli tendeva agguati ed assalti alle forze dell’ordine, uccideva chi considerava essere un informatore dei carabinieri; il bandito era imprendibile, numerosi erano gli agguati ed i rastrellamenti ai quali lui ed i suoi uomini riuscivano a sottrarsi, anzi, ad ogni azione condotta dai militari, faceva sempre seguito una reazione di rappresaglia, con la conseguenza che i militari uccisi aumentavano sempre di più. La fase discendente di Giuliano incomincia ad apparire all’orizzonte, il M.I.S. entra nella legalità venendo riconosciuta come appartenente allo Statuto Speciale Siciliano, Giuliano non accetta l’accordo continuando coi suoi uomini a fare guerra allo stato, nel 1946 il nuovo governo italiano concede l’indulto ai guerriglieri dell’EVIS, in tal modo Giuliano perde il suo esercito ed il suo ruolo di colonnello (viene così sciolta la componente femminile dell’EVIS, con circa 20 donne, vi faceva anche parte sua sorella Mariannina); col primo referendum istituzionale cade la monarchia, nasce la Repubblica, il movimento contadino spera nel cambiamento e nella riforma agraria, la lotta in difesa dei loro diritti porta alla uccisione di sindacalisti (Miraglia, Rizzotto, Carnevale) dei quali non si scopriranno mai i mandanti; Giuliano stringe rapporti con la mafia, incontra uomini delle istituzioni, inducendo a sospettare che dietro molte azioni (scellerate) di Giuliano e dietro la sua morte, si celino tante responsabilità e misteri, sulle quali non si è fatto ancora luce. Arriviamo al 1° Maggio del 1947, nelle campagne di Portella della Ginestra nei pressi di Piana degli Albanesi (PA), c’è una gran folla di contadini riuniti per celebrare la festa dei lavoratorI, ci sono anche tante donne e bambini, improvvisamente l’atmosfera festosa viene interrotta drammaticamente dai colpi di una mitragliatrice e di altre armi di vario genere, tra queste anche lancio di granate, sul campo restano senza vita 11 persone (tra queste due bambini), e molti feriti sul cui numero non c’è concordanza; la strage dette inizio alla “crisi del maggio 1947” con assalti alle sedi dei partiti di sinistra e delle camere del lavoro della zona, le cui motivazioni sarebbero legate, si è detto… all’avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti…ma anche alla volontà dei poteri mafiosi di mantenere i vecchi equilibri nel nuovo quadro istituzionale (n.d.r. sembra che Giuliano a Portella volesse solo dare una lezione a Girolamo Li Causi, leader dei comunisti, il quale fu avvisato dell’agguato,e non si presentò a Portella, secondo me non regge la citata avversione di Giuliano per i comunisti, lui che trovava sempre calore, protezione e complicità proprio da parte di quei contadini che furono trucidati; chi organizzò la strage era una mente criminale e raffinata, spaventò i movimenti contadini, e nel contempo decretò la subentrata impopolarità del bandito Giuliano che vide farsi attorno terra bruciata: spararono uomini mafiosi estranei alla banda di Giuliano dotati di fucili calibro 9, mentre gli uomini della banda avevano armi calibro 6,5, così come gli uomini di Giuliano non possedevano lanciagranate; Giuliano tentò di discolparsi scrivendo sui giornali un suo “Memoriale sui fatti di Portella della Ginestra”, sostenendo di essere in possesso di documenti che avrebbero dimostrato chi erano i veri colpevoli della strage). Il cerchio si andava stringendo attorno a Giuliano, le forze dell’ordine si avvalsero della mafia per convincere a collaborare con loro il suo fidatissimo luogotenente Gaspare Pisciotta, si avvalsero di informatori, come Salvatore Ferreri, detto frà Diavolo, a capo delle forze antibanditismo c’era il colonnello dei carabinieri Ugo Luca; il 5 luglio del 1950 viene ucciso Salvatore Giuliano, sembra ci sia stato un conflitto a fuoco coi carabinieri nel cortile della casa dell’avv. De Maria a Castelvetrano (TP), però è una messinscena, se ne accorgono i giornalisti accorsi immediatamente sul luogo dove giace il corpo, il sangue impregna la canottiera sul dorso, da diversi fori non fuoriesce sangue, sul lato del braccio è presente una “lacerazione della cute” (come se l’arto fosse stato a contatto con del ghiaccio), uno dei giornalisti che si accorge di questi ed altri dettagli, Tommaso Besozzi, scrive il suo articolo giornalistico intitolandolo “di sicuro c’è solo che è morto” (l'Europeo n. 29, anno 1950), in realtà ad ucciderlo mentre dormiva con un colpo di pistola, forse stordito da una droga messa nel vino, sarebbe stato il suo uomo più fidato, Gaspare Pisciotta, il quale successivamente viene arrestato, e durante il processo di Viterbo dalla gabbia urlerà “noi eravamo un corpo solo, banditi, polizia e mafia, come il Padre, il Figlio e lo Spirito Santo”, Pisciotta è pronto a fare nomi, rivelazioni, ma non farà in tempo, all’interno del carcere dell’Ucciardone di Palermo, una dose letale di stricnina messa dentro un medicinale prescrittogli per la sua tubercolosi (non dentro il caffè) lo stroncherà prima che possa tentare di vomitare. La storia sembra non dover finire, quando, in seguito ad una segnalazione del professore Giuseppe Casarrubea, importante storiografo, che fece riesumare con un suo esposto in Procura la salma di Giuliano nel 2010, ipotizzando che la tomba custodiva il cadavere di un sosia, il test del DNA avrebbe però dimostrato un profilo genetico compatibile con quello di un nipote di Giuliano. Sulla tomba di Salvatore, un mese dopo, vennero scolpiti i versi inviati per lettera a sua madre (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) di una donna che si firmava “Santuzza”, versi che dichiarava di averli avuti personalmente da suo figlio Salvatore: “Poveri sogni miei d’amor beati, nel meglio del gioir siete periti, sorgeste fieri ma sfortunati, e come uccello nei boschi siete spariti”. “Santuzza” in realtà si chiamava Maddalena Lo Giudice, quando era giovane viene descritta come una bellissima ragazza, timida, riservata, era la figlia del Podestà del suo paese (durante il regime fascista, il Podestà era il capo dell'amministrazione comunale), sembra si conobbero in un nosocomio di Catania, visitando ognuno un proprio conoscente, Maddalena avrebbe avuto da Salvatore un figlio (fu sottoposta suo malgrado a visita ginecologica per appurarne la veridicità), un cofanetto con dei valori, ed un memoriale, nel quale Giuliano avrebbe scritto cose importantissime circa i suoi rapporti con “uomini dello stato e non”; Maddalena successivamente disse di aver consegnato tutto ad una persona fidata, la quale avrebbe murato tutto, successivamente forse impaurita dal grande clamore che si era alzato attorno a lei, in una intervista giornalistica dichiarò che si era sognato ed inventato tutto…(n.d.r. ho sempre provato molta commozione per questa povera donna, sarebbe interessante poterne tracciare un profilo psicologico, suo padre era il Podestà del paese, beneficiando sempre del dubbio, come in tutta questa storia, mi dissero che toglieva ai poveri anche quel poco che avevano, chissà se la povera Maddalena si innamorò di Giuliano anche perché lui ne rappresentava l’antitesi, dando ai poveri quel che toglieva ai possidenti…), Maddalena andò a partorire di nascosto dagli occhi benpensanti del paese (non essendo una donna sposata avrebbe creato scandalo) in Calabria, quel figlio per proteggerlo fu messo subito in un orfanotrofio (tutte le forze dell’ordine della Sicilia cercavano il bandito Giuliano, chissà cosa sarebbe accaduto se si fosse venuto a sapere di un figlio suo..! lo avrebbero usato come si fa con un agnello legato al palo, aspettando l’arrivo della fiera…); questa donna alla morte di Giuliano fu raggiunta dalla sua mamma (Maria Giuliano Lombardo) e da sua sorella Mariannina (Mariannina Giuliano), per avere tutto quello che Salvatore aveva lasciato a Maddalena, la quale sicuramente gli aveva fatto un giuramento, di non dare a nessuno quanto da lui aveva ricevuto, certamente fino a quando Maddalena avrebbe tenuto nascosto con se “il tesoro” (non certo i gioielli, il vero valore era il suo memoriale !), nessuno le avrebbe fatto del male; comunque, Maddalena si è portata con se nella tomba questo suo segreto. In vecchiaia Maddalena viveva appartata, era un tipo solitario, doveva fare ricorso alla dialisi per una grave infezione renale, per la qual cosa doveva farsi accompagnare varie volte la settimana da un autista in ospedale, aveva forti dolori per i quali doveva fare ricorso a potenti analgesici, gli unici a darle un po’ di affetto, erano i suoi molti cani, gli unici che riuscivano a rasserenarla, non ebbe mai l’affetto di quell’unico figlio avuto da Salvatore, del quale non si è mai saputo nulla (ci furono un paio di personaggi che si autodichiararono i figli del bandito, ma non si è mai appurato nulla). Concludo, seppi di un operatore cinematografico siciliano, che lavorava per La Settimana Incom (essa era un cinegiornale italiano, distribuito settimanalmente nei cinema), il quale alla notizia dell’uccisione del bandito Giuliano (come tanti giornalisti) si recò immediatamente a Castelvetrano in casa dell’avv. De Maria, dove avrebbe trovato il corpo di Salvatore, egli raccontò che quando arrivò la madre di Salvatore, lo baciò in maniera struggente, terribilmente commovente, incluse le parti coperte di sangue, quell’operatore Incom disse, che fu talmente grande la commozione che provò nel vedere quella Madre, che non ebbe il coraggio di continuare le riprese: vorrei terminare dicendo, che il dolore tremendo di quella Madre, è stato il dolore tremendo di Tutte quelle Madri che hanno visto perire i loro figli (od i loro mariti) in quel periodo così buio della storia di Sicilia.

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www.holyspiritspeaks.org/videos/passage-god-has-made-anew...

Introduction

Almighty God says, "Do you wish to know the root of why the Pharisees opposed Jesus? Do you wish to know the substance of the Pharisees? They were full of fantasies about the Messiah. What’s more, they believed only that the Messiah would come, yet did not seek the truth of life. And so, even today they still await the Messiah, for they have no knowledge of the way of life, and do not know what the way of truth is. How, say you, could such foolish, stubborn and ignorant people gain God’s blessing? How could they behold the Messiah? They opposed Jesus because they did not know the direction of the Holy Spirit’s work, because they did not know the way of truth spoken by Jesus, and, furthermore, because they did not understand the Messiah. And since they had never seen the Messiah, and had never been in the company of the Messiah, they made the mistake of paying empty tribute to the name of the Messiah while opposing the substance of the Messiah by any means. These Pharisees in substance were stubborn, arrogant, and did not obey the truth. The principle of their belief in God is: No matter how profound Your preaching, no matter how high Your authority, You are not Christ unless You are called the Messiah. Are these views not preposterous and ridiculous? I ask you again: Is it not extremely easy for you to commit the mistakes of the earliest Pharisees, given that you have not the slightest understanding of Jesus? Are you able to discern the way of truth? Can you truly guarantee that you will not oppose Christ? Are you able to follow the work of the Holy Spirit? If you do not know whether you will oppose Christ, then I say that you are already living on the brink of death. Those who did not know the Messiah were all capable of opposing Jesus, of rejecting Jesus, of slandering Him. People who do not understand Jesus are all capable of denying Him, and reviling Him.

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With the rain falling harder, it was a bit of a route march to Holborn and my next church, the stunning St Sepulchre, which was also open.

 

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St Sepulchre-without-Newgate, also known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Holborn), is an Anglican church in the City of London. It is located on Holborn Viaduct, almost opposite the Old Bailey. In medieval times it stood just outside ("without") the now-demolished old city wall, near the Newgate. It has been a living of St John's College, Oxford, since 1622.

 

The original Saxon church on the site was dedicated to St Edmund the King and Martyr. During the Crusades in the 12th century the church was renamed St Edmund and the Holy Sepulchre, in reference to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The name eventually became contracted to St Sepulchre.

 

The church is today the largest parish church in the City. It was completely rebuilt in the 15th century but was gutted by the Great Fire of London in 1666,[1] which left only the outer walls, the tower and the porch standing[2] -. Modified in the 18th century, the church underwent extensive restoration in 1878. It narrowly avoided destruction in the Second World War, although the 18th-century watch-house in its churchyard (erected to deter grave-robbers) was completely destroyed and had to be rebuilt.

 

The interior of the church is a wide, roomy space with a coffered ceiling[3] installed in 1834. The Vicars' old residence has recently been renovated into a modern living quarter.

 

During the reign of Mary I in 1555, St Sepulchre's vicar, John Rogers, was burned as a heretic.

 

St Sepulchre is named in the nursery rhyme Oranges and Lemons as the "bells of Old Bailey". Traditionally, the great bell would be rung to mark the execution of a prisoner at the nearby gallows at Newgate. The clerk of St Sepulchre's was also responsible for ringing a handbell outside the condemned man's cell in Newgate Prison to inform him of his impending execution. This handbell, known as the Execution Bell, now resides in a glass case to the south of the nave.

 

The church has been the official musicians' church for many years and is associated with many famous musicians. Its north aisle (formerly a chapel dedicated to Stephen Harding) is dedicated as the Musicians' Chapel, with four windows commemorating John Ireland, the singer Dame Nellie Melba, Walter Carroll and the conductor Sir Henry Wood respectively.[4] Wood, who "at the age of fourteen, learned to play the organ" at this church [1] and later became its organist, also has his ashes buried in this church.

 

The south aisle of the church holds the regimental chapel of the Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), and its gardens are a memorial garden to that regiment.[5] The west end of the north aisle has various memorials connected with the City of London Rifles (the 6th Battalion London Regiment). The church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Sepulchre-without-Newgate

 

The Early History of St. Sepulchre's—Its Destruction in 1666—The Exterior and Interior—The Early Popularity of the Church—Interments here—Roger Ascham, the Author of the "Schoolmaster"—Captain John Smith, and his Romantic Adventures—Saved by an Indian Girl— St. Sepulchre's Churchyard—Accommodation for a Murderess—The Martyr Rogers—An Odd Circumstance—Good Company for the Dead—A Leap from the Tower—A Warning Bell and a Last Admonition—Nosegays for the Condemned—The Route to the Gallows-tree— The Deeds of the Charitable—The "Saracen's Head"—Description by Dickens—Giltspur Street—Giltspur Street Compter—A Disreputable Condition—Pie Corner—Hosier Lane—A Spurious Relic—The Conduit on Snow Hill—A Ladies' Charity School—Turnagain Lane—Poor Betty!—A Schoolmistress Censured—Skinner Street—Unpropitious Fortune—William Godwin—An Original Married Life.

 

Many interesting associations—Principally, however, connected with the annals of crime and the execution of the laws of England—belong to the Church of St. Sepulchre, or St. 'Pulchre. This sacred edifice—anciently known as St. Sepulchre's in the Bailey, or by Chamberlain Gate (now Newgate)—stands at the eastern end of the slight acclivity of Snow Hill, and between Smithfield and the Old Bailey. The genuine materials for its early history are scanty enough. It was probably founded about the commencement of the twelfth century, but of the exact date and circumstances of its origin there is no record whatever. Its name is derived from the Holy Sepulchre of our Saviour at Jerusalem, to the memory of which it was first dedicated.

 

The earliest authentic notice of the church, according to Maitland, is of the year 1178, at which date it was given by Roger, Bishop of Sarum, to the Prior and Canons of St. Bartholomew. These held the right of advowson until the dissolution of monasteries by Henry VIII., and from that time until 1610 it remained in the hands of the Crown. James I., however, then granted "the rectory and its appurtenances, with the advowson of the vicarage," to Francis Phillips and others. The next stage in its history is that the rectory was purchased by the parishioners, to be held in fee-farm of the Crown, and the advowson was obtained by the President and Fellows of St. John the Baptist College, at Oxford.

 

The church was rebuilt about the middle of the fifteenth century, when one of the Popham family, who had been Chancellor of Normandy and Treasurer of the King's Household, with distinguished liberality erected a handsome chapel on the south side of the choir, and the very beautiful porch still remaining at the south-west corner of the building. "His image," Stow says, "fair graven in stone, was fixed over the said porch."

 

The dreadful fire of 1666 almost destroyed St. Sepulchre's, but the parishioners set energetically to work, and it was "rebuilt and beautified both within and without." The general reparation was under the direction of Sir Christopher Wren, and nothing but the walls of the old building, and these not entirely, were suffered to remain. The work was done rapidly, and the whole was completed within four years.

 

"The tower," says Mr. Godwin, "retained its original aspect, and the body of the church, after its restoration, presented a series of windows between buttresses, with pointed heads filled with tracery, crowned by a string-course and battlements. In this form it remained till the year 1790, when it appears the whole fabric was found to be in a state of great decay, and it was resolved to repair it throughout. Accordingly the walls of the church were cased with Portland stone, and all the windows were taken out and replaced by others with plain semi-circular heads, as now seen—certainly agreeing but badly with the tower and porch of the building, but according with the then prevailing spirit of economy. The battlements, too, were taken down, and a plain stone parapet was substituted, so that at this time (with the exception of the roof, which was wagon-headed, and presented on the outside an unsightly swell, visible above the parapet) the church assumed its present appearance." The ungainly roof was removed, and an entirely new one erected, about 1836.

 

At each corner of the tower—"one of the most ancient," says the author of "Londinium Redivivum," "in the outline of the circuit of London" —there are spires, and on the spires there are weathercocks. These have been made use of by Howell to point a moral: "Unreasonable people," says he, "are as hard to reconcile as the vanes of St. Sepulchre's tower, which never look all four upon one point of the heavens." Nothing can be said with certainty as to the date of the tower, but it is not without the bounds of probability that it formed part of the original building. The belfry is reached by a small winding staircase in the south-west angle, and a similar staircase in an opposite angle leads to the summit. The spires at the corners, and some of the tower windows, have very recently undergone several alterations, which have added much to the picturesqueness and beauty of the church.

 

The chief entrance to St. Sepulchre's is by a porch of singular beauty, projecting from the south side of the tower, at the western end of the church. The groining of the ceiling of this porch, it has been pointed out, takes an almost unique form; the ribs are carved in bold relief, and the bosses at the intersections represent angels' heads, shields, roses, &c., in great variety.

 

Coming now to the interior of the church, we find it divided into three aisles, by two ranges of Tuscan columns. The aisles are of unequal widths, that in the centre being the widest, that to the south the narrowest. Semi-circular arches connect the columns on either side, springing directly from their capitals, without the interposition of an entablature, and support a large dental cornice, extending round the church. The ceiling of the middle aisle is divided into seven compartments, by horizontal bands, the middle compartment being formed into a small dome.

 

The aisles have groined ceilings, ornamented at the angles with doves, &c., and beneath every division of the groining are small windows, to admit light to the galleries. Over each of the aisles there is a gallery, very clumsily introduced, which dates from the time when the church was built by Wren, and extends the whole length, excepting at the chancel. The front of the gallery, which is of oak, is described by Mr. Godwin as carved into scrolls, branches, &c., in the centre panel, on either side, with the initials "C. R.," enriched with carvings of laurel, which have, however, he says, "but little merit."

 

At the east end of the church there are three semicircular-headed windows. Beneath the centre one is a large Corinthian altar-piece of oak, displaying columns, entablatures, &c., elaborately carved and gilded.

 

The length of the church, exclusive of the ambulatory, is said to be 126 feet, the breadth 68 feet, and the height of the tower 140 feet.

 

A singularly ugly sounding-board, extending over the preacher, used to stand at the back of the pulpit, at the east end of the church. It was in the shape of a large parabolic reflector, about twelve feet in diameter, and was composed of ribs of mahogany.

 

At the west end of the church there is a large organ, said to be the oldest and one of the finest in London. It was built in 1677, and has been greatly enlarged. Its reed-stops (hautboy, clarinet, &c.) are supposed to be unrivalled. In Newcourt's time the church was taken notice of as "remarkable for possessing an exceedingly fine organ, and the playing is thought so beautiful, that large congregations are attracted, though some of the parishioners object to the mode of performing divine service."

 

On the north side of the church, Mr. Godwin mentions, is a large apartment known as "St. Stephen's Chapel." This building evidently formed a somewhat important part of the old church, and was probably appropriated to the votaries of the saint whose name it bears.

 

Between the exterior and the interior of the church there is little harmony. "For example," says Mr. Godwin, "the columns which form the south aisle face, in some instances, the centre of the large windows which occur in the external wall of the church, and in others the centre of the piers, indifferently." This discordance may likely enough have arisen from the fact that when the church was rebuilt, or rather restored, after the Great Fire, the works were done without much attention from Sir Christopher Wren.

 

St. Sepulchre's appears to have enjoyed considerable popularity from the earliest period of its history, if one is to judge from the various sums left by well-disposed persons for the support of certain fraternities founded in the church—namely, those of St. Katherine, St. Michael, St. Anne, and Our Lady—and by others, for the maintenance of chantry priests to celebrate masses at stated intervals for the good of their souls. One of the fraternities just named—that of St. Katherine— originated, according to Stow, in the devotion of some poor persons in the parish, and was in honour of the conception of the Virgin Mary. They met in the church on the day of the Conception, and there had the mass of the day, and offered to the same, and provided a certain chaplain daily to celebrate divine service, and to set up wax lights before the image belonging to the fraternity, on all festival days.

 

The most famous of all who have been interred in St. Sepulchre's is Roger Ascham, the author of the "Schoolmaster," and the instructor of Queen Elizabeth in Greek and Latin. This learned old worthy was born in 1515, near Northallerton, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Cambridge University, and in time rose to be the university orator, being notably zealous in promoting what was then a novelty in England—the study of the Greek language. To divert himself after the fatigue of severe study, he used to devote himself to archery. This drew down upon him the censure of the all-work-and-no-play school; and in defence of himself, Ascham, in 1545, published "Toxophilus," a treatise on his favourite sport. This book is even yet well worthy of perusal, for its enthusiasm, and for its curious descriptions of the personal appearance and manners of the principal persons whom the author had seen and conversed with. Henry VIII. rewarded him with a pension of £10 per annum, a considerable sum in those days. In 1548, Ascham, on the death of William Grindall, who had been his pupil, was appointed instructor in the learned languages to Lady Elizabeth, afterwards the good Queen Bess. At the end of two years he had some dispute with, or took a disgust at, Lady Elizabeth's attendants, resigned his situation, and returned to his college. Soon after this he was employed as secretary to the English ambassador at the court of Charles V. of Germany, and remained abroad till the death of Edward VI. During his absence he had been appointed Latin secretary to King Edward. Strangely enough, though Queen Mary and her ministers were Papists, and Ascham a Protestant, he was retained in his office of Latin secretary, his pension was increased to £20, and he was allowed to retain his fellowship and his situation as university orator. In 1554 he married a lady of good family, by whom he had a considerable fortune, and of whom, in writing to a friend, he gives, as might perhaps be expected, an excellent character. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth, in 1558, she not only required his services as Latin secretary, but as her instructor in Greek, and he resided at Court during the remainder of his life. He died in consequence of his endeavours to complete a Latin poem which he intended to present to the queen on the New Year's Day of 1569. He breathed his last two days before 1568 ran out, and was interred, according to his own directions, in the most private manner, in St. Sepulchre's Church, his funeral sermon being preached by Dr. Andrew Nowell, Dean of St. Paul's. He was universally lamented; and even the queen herself not only showed great concern, but was pleased to say that she would rather have lost ten thousand pounds than her tutor Ascham, which, from that somewhat closehanded sovereign, was truly an expression of high regard.

 

Ascham, like most men, had his little weaknesses. He had too great a propensity to dice and cock-fighting. Bishop Nicholson would try to convince us that this is an unfounded calumny, but, as it is mentioned by Camden, and other contemporary writers, it seems impossible to deny it. He died, from all accounts, in indifferent circumstances. "Whether," says Dr. Johnson, referring to this, "Ascham was poor by his own fault, or the fault of others, cannot now be decided; but it is certain that many have been rich with less merit. His philological learning would have gained him honour in any country; and among us it may justly call for that reverence which all nations owe to those who first rouse them from ignorance, and kindle among them the light of literature." His most valuable work, "The Schoolmaster," was published by his widow. The nature of this celebrated performance may be gathered from the title: "The Schoolmaster; or a plain and perfite way of teaching children to understand, write, and speak the Latin tongue. … And commodious also for all such as have forgot the Latin tongue, and would by themselves, without a schoolmaster, in short time, and with small pains, recover a sufficient habilitie to understand, write, and speak Latin: by Roger Ascham, ann. 1570. At London, printed by John Daye, dwelling over Aldersgate," a printer, by the way, already mentioned by us a few chapters back (see page 208), as having printed several noted works of the sixteenth century.

 

Dr. Johnson remarks that the instruction recommended in "The Schoolmaster" is perhaps the best ever given for the study of languages.

 

Here also lies buried Captain John Smith, a conspicuous soldier of fortune, whose romantic adventures and daring exploits have rarely been surpassed. He died on the 21st of June, 1631. This valiant captain was born at Willoughby, in the county of Lincoln, and helped by his doings to enliven the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. He had a share in the wars of Hungary in 1602, and in three single combats overcame three Turks, and cut off their heads. For this, and other equally brave deeds, Sigismund, Duke of Transylvania, gave him his picture set in gold, with a pension of three hundred ducats; and allowed him to bear three Turks' heads proper as his shield of arms. He afterwards went to America, where he had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the Indians. He escaped from them, however, at last, and resumed his brilliant career by hazarding his life in naval engagements with pirates and Spanish men-of-war. The most important act of his life was the share he had in civilising the natives of New England, and reducing that province to obedience to Great Britain. In connection with his tomb in St. Sepulchre's, he is mentioned by Stow, in his "Survey," as "some time Governor of Virginia and Admiral of New England."

 

Certainly the most interesting events of his chequered career were his capture by the Indians, and the saving of his life by the Indian girl Pocahontas, a story of adventure that charms as often as it is told. Bancroft, the historian of the United States, relates how, during the early settlement of Virginia, Smith left the infant colony on an exploring expedition, and not only ascended the river Chickahominy, but struck into the interior. His companions disobeyed his instructions, and being surprised by the Indians, were put to death. Smith preserved his own life by calmness and self-possession. Displaying a pocket-compass, he amused the savages by an explanation of its power, and increased their admiration of his superior genius by imparting to them some vague conceptions of the form of the earth, and the nature of the planetary system. To the Indians, who retained him as their prisoner, his captivity was a more strange event than anything of which the traditions of their tribes preserved the memory. He was allowed to send a letter to the fort at Jamestown, and the savage wonder was increased, for he seemed by some magic to endow the paper with the gift of intelligence. It was evident that their captive was a being of a high order, and then the question arose, Was his nature beneficent, or was he to be dreaded as a dangerous enemy? Their minds were bewildered, and the decision of his fate was referred to the chief Powhatan, and before Powhatan Smith was brought. "The fears of the feeble aborigines," says Bancroft, "were about to prevail, and his immediate death, already repeatedly threatened and repeatedly delayed, would have been inevitable, but for the timely intercession of Pocahontas, a girl twelve years old, the daughter of Powhatan, whose confiding fondness Smith had easily won, and who firmly clung to his neck, as his head was bowed down to receive the stroke of the tomahawks. His fearlessness, and her entreaties, persuaded the council to spare the agreeable stranger, who could make hatchets for her father, and rattles and strings of beads for herself, the favourite child. The barbarians, whose decision had long been held in suspense by the mysterious awe which Smith had inspired, now resolved to receive him as a friend, and to make him a partner of their councils. They tempted him to join their bands, and lend assistance in an attack upon the white men at Jamestown; and when his decision of character succeeded in changing the current of their thoughts, they dismissed him with mutual promises of friendship and benevolence. Thus the captivity of Smith did itself become a benefit to the colony; for he had not only observed with care the country between the James and the Potomac, and had gained some knowledge of the language and manners of the natives, but he now established a peaceful intercourse between the English and the tribes of Powhatan."

 

On the monument erected to Smith in St. Sepulchre's Church, the following quaint lines were formerly inscribed:—

 

"Here lies one conquered that hath conquered kings,

Subdued large territories, and done things

Which to the world impossible would seem,

But that the truth is held in more esteem.

Shall I report his former service done,

In honour of his God, and Christendom?

How that he did divide, from pagans three,

Their heads and lives, types of his chivalry?—

For which great service, in that climate done,

Brave Sigismundus, King of Hungarion,

Did give him, as a coat of arms, to wear

These conquered heads, got by his sword and spear.

Or shall I tell of his adventures since

Done in Virginia, that large continent?

How that he subdued kings unto his yoke,

And made those heathens flee, as wind doth smoke;

And made their land, being so large a station,

An habitation for our Christian nation,

Where God is glorified, their wants supplied;

Which else for necessaries, must have died.

But what avails his conquests, now he lies

Interred in earth, a prey to worms and flies?

Oh! may his soul in sweet Elysium sleep,

Until the Keeper, that all souls doth keep,

Return to judgment; and that after thence

With angels he may have his recompense."

 

Sir Robert Peake, the engraver, also found a last resting-place here. He is known as the master of William Faithorne—the famous English engraver of the seventeenth century—and governor of Basing House for the king during the Civil War under Charles I. He died in 1667. Here also was interred the body of Dr. Bell, grandfather of the originator of a well-known system of education.

 

"The churchyard of St. Sepulchre's," we learn from Maitland, "at one time extended so far into the street on the south side of the church, as to render the passage-way dangerously narrow. In 1760 the churchyard was, in consequence, levelled, and thrown open to the public. But this led to much inconvenience, and it was re-enclosed in 1802."

 

Sarah Malcolm, the murderess, was buried in the churchyard of St. Sepulchre's in 1733. This coldhearted and keen-eyed monster in human form has had her story told by us already. The parishioners seem, on this occasion, to have had no such scruples as had been exhibited by their predecessors a hundred and fifty years previous at the burial of Awfield, a traitor. We shall see presently that in those more remote days they were desirous of having at least respectable company for their deceased relatives and friends in the churchyard.

 

"For a long period," says Mr. Godwin (1838), "the church was surrounded by low mean buildings, by which its general appearance was hidden; but these having been cleared away, and the neighbourhood made considerably more open, St. Sepulchre's now forms a somewhat pleasing object, notwithstanding that the tower and a part of the porch are so entirely dissimilar in style to the remainder of the building." And since Godwin's writing the surroundings of the church have been so improved that perhaps few buildings in the metropolis stand more prominently before the public eye.

 

In the glorious roll of martyrs who have suffered at the stake for their religious principles, a vicar of St. Sepulchre's, the Reverend John Rogers, occupies a conspicuous place. He was the first who was burned in the reign of the Bloody Mary. This eminent person had at one time been chaplain to the English merchants at Antwerp, and while residing in that city had aided Tindal and Coverdale in their great work of translating the Bible. He married a German lady of good position, by whom he had a large family, and was enabled, by means of her relations, to reside in peace and safety in Germany. It appeared to be his duty, however, to return to England, and there publicly profess and advocate his religious convictions, even at the risk of death. He crossed the sea; he took his place in the pulpit at St. Paul's Cross; he preached a fearless and animated sermon, reminding his astonished audience of the pure and wholesome doctrine which had been promulgated from that pulpit in the days of the good King Edward, and solemnly warning them against the pestilent idolatry and superstition of these new times. It was his last sermon. He was apprehended, tried, condemned, and burned at Smithfield. We described, when speaking of Smithfield, the manner in which he met his fate.

 

Connected with the martyrdom of Rogers an odd circumstance is quoted in the "Churches of London." It is stated that when the bishops had resolved to put to death Joan Bocher, a friend came to Rogers and earnestly entreated his influence that the poor woman's life might be spared, and other means taken to prevent the spread of her heterodox doctrines. Rogers, however, contended that she should be executed; and his friend then begged him to choose some other kind of death, which should be more agreeable to the gentleness and mercy prescribed in the gospel. "No," replied Rogers, "burning alive is not a cruel death, but easy enough." His friend hearing these words, expressive of so little regard for the sufferings of a fellow-creature, answered him with great vehemence, at the same time striking Rogers' hand, "Well, it may perhaps so happen that you yourself shall have your hands full of this mild burning." There is no record of Rogers among the papers belonging to St. Sepulchre's, but this may easily be accounted for by the fact that at the Great Fire of 1666 nearly all the registers and archives were destroyed.

 

A noteworthy incident in the history of St. Sepulchre's was connected with the execution, in 1585, of Awfield, for "sparcinge abrood certen lewed, sedicious, and traytorous bookes." "When he was executed," says Fleetwood, the Recorder, in a letter to Lord Burleigh, July 7th of that year, "his body was brought unto St. Pulcher's to be buryed, but the parishioners would not suffer a traytor's corpse to be laid in the earth where their parents, wives, children, kindred, masters, and old neighbours did rest; and so his carcass was returned to the burial-ground near Tyburn, and there I leave it."

 

Another event in the history of the church is a tale of suicide. On the 10th of April, 1600, a man named William Dorrington threw himself from the roof of the tower, leaving there a prayer for forgiveness.

 

We come now to speak of the connection of St. Sepulchre's with the neighbouring prison of Newgate. Being the nearest church to the prison, that connection naturally was intimate. Its clock served to give the time to the hangman when there was an execution in the Old Bailey, and many a poor wretch's last moments must it have regulated.

 

On the right-hand side of the altar a board with a list of charitable donations and gifts used to contain the following item:—"1605. Mr. Robert Dowe gave, for ringing the greatest bell in this church on the day the condemned prisoners are executed, and for other services, for ever, concerning such condemned prisoners, for which services the sexton is paid £16s. 8d.—£50.

 

It was formerly the practice for the clerk or bellman of St. Sepulchre's to go under Newgate, on the night preceding the execution of a criminal, ring his bell, and repeat the following wholesome advice:—

 

"All you that in the condemned hold do lie,

Prepare you, for to-morrow you shall die;

Watch all, and pray, the hour is drawing near

That you before the Almighty must appear;

Examine well yourselves, in time repent,

That you may not to eternal flames be sent.

And when St. Sepulchre's bell to-morrow tolls,

The Lord above have mercy on your souls.

Past twelve o'clock!"

 

This practice is explained by a passage in Munday's edition of Stow, in which it is told that a Mr. John Dowe, citizen and merchant taylor of London, gave £50 to the parish church of St. Sepulchre's, under the following conditions:—After the several sessions of London, on the night before the execution of such as were condemned to death, the clerk of the church was to go in the night-time, and also early in the morning, to the window of the prison in which they were lying. He was there to ring "certain tolls with a hand-bell" appointed for the purpose, and was afterwards, in a most Christian manner, to put them in mind of their present condition and approaching end, and to exhort them to be prepared, as they ought to be, to die. When they were in the cart, and brought before the walls of the church, the clerk was to stand there ready with the same bell, and, after certain tolls, rehearse a prayer, desiring all the people there present to pray for the unfortunate criminals. The beadle, also, of Merchant Taylors' Hall was allowed an "honest stipend" to see that this ceremony was regularly performed.

 

The affecting admonition—"affectingly good," Pennant calls it—addressed to the prisoners in Newgate, on the night before execution, ran as follows:—

 

"You prisoners that are within,

Who, for wickedness and sin,

 

after many mercies shown you, are now appointed to die to-morrow in the forenoon; give ear and understand that, to-morrow morning, the greatest bell of St. Sepulchre's shall toll for you, in form and manner of a passing-bell, as used to be tolled for those that are at the point of death; to the end that all godly people, hearing that bell, and knowing it is for your going to your deaths, may be stirred up heartily to pray to God to bestow his grace and mercy upon you, whilst you live. I beseech you, for Jesus Christ's sake, to keep this night in watching and prayer, to the salvation of your own souls while there is yet time and place for mercy; as knowing to-morrow you must appear before the judgment-seat of your Creator, there to give an account of all things done in this life, and to suffer eternal torments for your sins committed against Him, unless, upon your hearty and unfeigned repentance, you find mercy through the merits, death, and passion of your only Mediator and Advocate, Jesus Christ, who now sits at the right hand of God, to make intercession for as many of you as penitently return to Him."

 

And the following was the admonition to condemned criminals, as they were passing by St. Sepulchre's Church wall to execution:—" All good people, pray heartily unto God for these poor sinners, who are now going to their death, for whom this great bell doth toll.

 

"You that are condemned to die, repent with lamentable tears; ask mercy of the Lord, for the salvation of your own souls, through the [merits, death, and passion of Jesus Christ, who now sits at the right hand of God, to make intercession for as many of you as penitently return unto Him.

 

"Lord have mercy upon you;

Christ have mercy upon you.

Lord have mercy upon you;

Christ have mercy upon you."

 

The charitable Mr. Dowe, who took such interest in the last moments of the occupants of the condemned cell, was buried in the church of St. Botolph, Aldgate.

 

Another curious custom observed at St. Sepulchre's was the presentation of a nosegay to every criminal on his way to execution at Tyburn. No doubt the practice had its origin in some kindly feeling for the poor unfortunates who were so soon to bid farewell to all the beauties of earth. One of the last who received a nosegay from the steps of St. Sepulchre's was "Sixteen-string Jack," alias John Rann, who was hanged, in 1774, for robbing the Rev. Dr. Bell of his watch and eighteen pence in money, in Gunnersbury Lane, on the road to Brentford. Sixteen-string Jack wore the flowers in his button-hole as he rode dolefully to the gallows. This was witnessed by John Thomas Smith, who thus describes the scene in his admirable anecdotebook, "Nollekens and his Times:"—" I remember well, when I was in my eighth year, Mr. Nollekens calling at my father's house, in Great Portland Street, and taking us to Oxford Street, to see the notorious Jack Rann, commonly called Sixteenstring Jack, go to Tyburn to be hanged. … The criminal was dressed in a pea-green coat, with an immense nosegay in the button-hole, which had been presented to him at St. Sepulchre's steps; and his nankeen small-clothes, we were told, were tied at each knee with sixteen strings. After he had passed, and Mr. Nollekens was leading me home by the hand, I recollect his stooping down to me and observing, in a low tone of voice, 'Tom, now, my little man, if my father-in-law, Mr. Justice Welch, had been high constable, we could have walked by the side of the cart all the way to Tyburn.'"

 

When criminals were conveyed from Newgate to Tyburn, the cart passed up Giltspur Street, and through Smithfield, to Cow Lane. Skinner Street had not then been built, and the Crooked Lane which turned down by St. Sepulchre's, as well as Ozier Lane, did not afford sufficient width to admit of the cavalcade passing by either of them, with convenience, to Holborn Hill, or "the Heavy Hill," as it used to be called. The procession seems at no time to have had much of the solemn element about it. "The heroes of the day were often," says a popular writer, "on good terms with the mob, and jokes were exchanged between the men who were going to be hanged and the men who deserved to be."

 

"On St. Paul's Day," says Mr. Timbs (1868), "service is performed in St. Sepulchre's, in accordance with the will of Mr. Paul Jervis, who, in 1717, devised certain land in trust that a sermon should be preached in the church upon every Paul's Day upon the excellence of the liturgy o the Church of England; the preacher to receive 40s. for such sermon. Various sums are also bequeathed to the curate, the clerk, the treasurer, and masters of the parochial schools. To the poor of the parish he bequeathed 20s. a-piece to ten of the poorest householders within that part of the parish of St. Sepulchre commonly called Smithfield quarter, £4 to the treasurer of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and 6s. 8d. yearly to the clerk, who shall attend to receive the same. The residue of the yearly rents and profits is to be distributed unto and amongst such poor people of the parish of St. Sepulchre's, London, who shall attend the service and sermon. At the close of the service the vestry-clerk reads aloud an extract from the will, and then proceeds to the distribution of the money. In the evening the vicar, churchwardens, and common councilmen of the precinct dine together."

 

In 1749, a Mr. Drinkwater made a praiseworthy bequest. He left the parish of St. Sepulchre £500 to be lent in sums of £25 to industrious young tradesmen. No interest was to be charged, and the money was to be lent for four years.

 

Next to St. Sepulchre's, on Snow Hill, used to stand the famous old inn of the "Saracen's Head." It was only swept away within the last few years by the ruthless army of City improvers: a view of it in course of demolition was given on page 439. It was one of the oldest of the London inns which bore the "Saracen's Head" for a sign. One of Dick Tarlton's jests makes mention of the "Saracen's Head" without Newgate, and Stow, describing this neighbourhood, speaks particularly of "a fair large inn for receipt of travellers" that "hath to sign the 'Saracen's Head.'" The courtyard had, to the last, many of the characteristics of an old English inn; there were galleries all round leading to the bedrooms, and a spacious gateway through which the dusty mail-coaches used to rumble, the tired passengers creeping forth "thanking their stars in having escaped the highwaymen and the holes and sloughs of the road." Into that courtyard how many have come on their first arrival in London with hearts beating high with hope, some of whom have risen to be aldermen and sit in state as lord mayor, whilst others have gone the way of the idle apprentice and come to a sad end at Tyburn! It was at this inn that Nicholas Nickleby and his uncle waited upon the Yorkshire schoolmaster Squeers, of Dotheboys Hall. Mr. Dickens describes the tavern as it existed in the last days of mail-coaching, when it was a most important place for arrivals and departures in London:—

 

"Next to the jail, and by consequence near to Smithfield also, and the Compter and the bustle and noise of the City, and just on that particular part of Snow Hill where omnibus horses going eastwards seriously think of falling down on purpose, and where horses in hackney cabriolets going westwards not unfrequently fall by accident, is the coach-yard of the 'Saracen's Head' inn, its portals guarded by two Saracen's heads and shoulders, which it was once the pride and glory of the choice spirits of this metropolis to pull down at night, but which have for some time remained in undisturbed tranquillity, possibly because this species of humour is now confined to St. James's parish, where doorknockers are preferred as being more portable, and bell-wires esteemed as convenient tooth-picks. Whether this be the reason or not, there they are, frowning upon you from each side of the gateway; and the inn itself, garnished with another Saracen's head, frowns upon you from the top of the yard; while from the door of the hind-boot of all the red coaches that are standing therein, there glares a small Saracen's head with a twin expression to the large Saracen's head below, so that the general appearance of the pile is of the Saracenic order."

 

To explain the use of the Saracen's head as an inn sign various reasons have been given. "When our countrymen," says Selden, "came home from fighting with the Saracens and were beaten by them, they pictured them with huge, big, terrible faces (as you still see the 'Saracen's Head' is), when in truth they were like other men. But this they did to save their own credit." Or the sign may have been adopted by those who had visited the Holy Land either as pilgrims or to fight the Saracens. Others, again, hold that it was first set up in compliment to the mother of Thomas à Becket, who was the daughter of a Saracen. However this may be, it is certain that the use of the sign in former days was very general.

 

Running past the east end of St. Sepulchre's, from Newgate into West Smithfield, is Giltspur Street, anciently called Knightriders Street. This interesting thoroughfare derives its name from the knights with their gilt spurs having been accustomed to ride this way to the jousts and tournaments which in days of old were held in Smithfield.

 

In this street was Giltspur Street Compter, a debtors' prison and house of correction appertaining to the sheriffs of London and Middlesex. It stood over against St. Sepulchre's Church, and was removed hither from the east side of Wood Street, Cheapside, in 1791. At the time of its removal it was used as a place of imprisonment for debtors, but the yearly increasing demands upon the contracted space caused that department to be given up, and City debtors were sent to Whitecross Street. The architect was Dance, to whom we are also indebted for the grim pile of Newgate. The Compter was a dirty and appropriately convictlooking edifice. It was pulled down in 1855. Mr. Hepworth Dixon gave an interesting account of this City House of Correction, not long before its demolition, in his "London Prisons" (1850). "Entering," he says, "at the door facing St. Sepulchre's, the visitor suddenly finds himself in a low dark passage, leading into the offices of the gaol, and branching off into other passages, darker, closer, more replete with noxious smells, than even those of Newgate. This is the fitting prelude to what follows. The prison, it must be noticed, is divided into two principal divisions, the House of Correction and the Compter. The front in Giltspur Street, and the side nearest to Newgate Street, is called the Compter. In its wards are placed detenues of various kinds—remands, committals from the police-courts, and generally persons waiting for trial, and consequently still unconvicted. The other department, the House of Correction, occupies the back portion of the premises, abutting on Christ's Hospital. Curious it is to consider how thin a wall divides these widely-separate worlds! And sorrowful it is to think what a difference of destiny awaits the children—destiny inexorable, though often unearned in either case—who, on the one side of it or the other, receive an eleemosynary education! The collegian and the criminal! Who shall say how much mere accident— circumstances over which the child has little power —determines to a life of usefulness or mischief? From the yards of Giltspur Street prison almost the only objects visible, outside of the gaol itself, are the towers of Christ's Hospital; the only sounds audible, the shouts of the scholars at their play. The balls of the hospital boys often fall within the yards of the prison. Whether these sights and sounds ever cause the criminal to pause and reflect upon the courses of his life, we will not say, but the stranger visiting the place will be very apt to think for him. …

 

"In the department of the prison called the House of Correction, minor offenders within the City of London are imprisoned. No transports are sent hither, nor is any person whose sentence is above three years in length." This able writer then goes on to tell of the many crying evils connected with the institution—the want of air, the over-crowded state of the rooms, the absence of proper cellular accommodation, and the vicious intercourse carried on amongst the prisoners. The entire gaol, when he wrote, only contained thirty-six separate sleeping-rooms. Now by the highest prison calculation—and this, be it noted, proceeds on the assumption that three persons can sleep in small, miserable, unventilated cells, which are built for only one, and are too confined for that, being only about one-half the size of the model cell for one at Pentonville—it was only capable of accommodating 203 prisoners, yet by the returns issued at Michaelmas, 1850, it contained 246!

 

A large section of the prison used to be devoted to female delinquents, but lately it was almost entirely given up to male offenders.

 

"The House of Correction, and the Compter portion of the establishment," says Mr. Dixon, "are kept quite distinct, but it would be difficult to award the palm of empire in their respective facilities for demoralisation. We think the Compter rather the worse of the two. You are shown into a room, about the size of an apartment in an ordinary dwelling-house, which will be found crowded with from thirty to forty persons, young and old, and in their ordinary costume; the low thief in his filth and rags, and the member of the swell-mob with his bright buttons, flash finery, and false jewels. Here you notice the boy who has just been guilty of his first offence, and committed for trial, learning with a greedy mind a thousand criminal arts, and listening with the precocious instinct of guilty passions to stories and conversations the most depraved and disgusting. You regard him with a mixture of pity and loathing, for he knows that the eyes of his peers are upon him, and he stares at you with a familiar impudence, and exhibits a devil-may-care countenance, such as is only to be met with in the juvenile offender. Here, too, may be seen the young clerk, taken up on suspicion—perhaps innocent—who avoids you with a shy look of pain and uneasiness: what a hell must this prison be to him! How frightful it is to think of a person really untainted with crime, compelled to herd for ten or twenty days with these abandoned wretches!

 

"On the other, the House of Correction side of the gaol, similar rooms will be found, full of prisoners communicating with each other, laughing and shouting without hindrance. All this is so little in accordance with existing notions of prison discipline, that one is continually fancying these disgraceful scenes cannot be in the capital of England, and in the year of grace 1850. Very few of the prisoners attend school or receive any instruction; neither is any kind of employment afforded them, except oakum-picking, and the still more disgusting labour of the treadmill. When at work, an officer is in attendance to prevent disorderly conduct; but his presence is of no avail as a protection to the less depraved. Conversation still goes on; and every facility is afforded for making acquaintances, and for mutual contamination."

 

After having long been branded by intelligent inspectors as a disgrace to the metropolis, Giltspur Street Compter was condemned, closed in 1854, and subsequently taken down.

 

Nearly opposite what used to be the site of the Compter, and adjoining Cock Lane, is the spot called Pie Corner, near which terminated the Great Fire of 1666. The fire commenced at Pudding Lane, it will be remembered, so it was singularly appropriate that it should terminate at Pie Corner. Under the date of 4th September, 1666, Pepys, in his "Diary," records that "W. Hewer this day went to see how his mother did, and comes home late, telling us how he hath been forced to remove her to Islington, her house in Pye Corner being burned; so that the fire is got so far that way." The figure of a fat naked boy stands over a public house at the corner of the lane; it used to have the following warning inscription attached:— "This boy is in memory put up of the late fire of London, occasioned by the sin of gluttony, 1666." According to Stow, Pie Corner derived its name from the sign of a well-frequented hostelry, which anciently stood on the spot. Strype makes honourable mention of Pie Corner, as "noted chiefly for cooks' shops and pigs dressed there during Bartholomew Fair." Our old writers have many references—and not all, by the way, in the best taste—to its cookstalls and dressed pork. Shadwell, for instance, in the Woman Captain (1680) speaks of "meat dressed at Pie Corner by greasy scullions;" and Ben Jonson writes in the Alchemist (1612)—

 

"I shall put you in mind, sir, at Pie Corner,

Taking your meal of steam in from cooks' stalls."

 

And in "The Great Boobee" ("Roxburgh Ballads"):

 

"Next day I through Pie Corner passed;

The roast meat on the stall

Invited me to take a taste;

My money was but small."

 

But Pie Corner seems to have been noted for more than eatables. A ballad from Tom D'Urfey's "Pills to Purge Melancholy," describing Bartholomew Fair, eleven years before the Fire of London, says:—

 

"At Pie-Corner end, mark well my good friend,

'Tis a very fine dirty place;

Where there's more arrows and bows. …

Than was handled at Chivy Chase."

 

We have already given a view of Pie Corner in our chapter on Smithfield, page 361.

 

Hosier Lane, running from Cow Lane to Smithfield, and almost parallel to Cock Lane, is described by "R. B.," in Strype, as a place not over-well built or inhabited. The houses were all old timber erections. Some of these—those standing at the south corner of the lane—were in the beginning of this century depicted by Mr. J. T. Smith, in his "Ancient Topography of London." He describes them as probably of the reign of James I. The rooms were small, with low, unornamented ceilings; the timber, oak, profusely used; the gables were plain, and the walls lath and plaster. They were taken down in 1809.

 

In the corner house, in Mr. Smith's time, there was a barber whose name was Catchpole; at least, so it was written over the door. He was rather an odd fellow, and possessed, according to his own account, a famous relic of antiquity. He would gravely show his customers a short-bladed instrument, as the identical dagger with which Walworth killed Wat Tyler.

 

Hosier Lane, like Pie Corner, used to be a great resort during the time of Bartholomew Fair, "all the houses," it is said in Strype, "generally being made public for tippling."

 

We return now from our excursion to the north of St. Sepulchre's, and continue our rambles to the west, and before speaking of what is, let us refer to what has been.

 

Turnagain Lane is not far from this. "Near unto this Seacoal Lane," remarks Stow, "in the turning towards Holborn Conduit, is Turnagain Lane, or rather, as in a record of the 5th of Edward III., Windagain Lane, for that it goeth down west to Fleet Dyke, from whence men must turn again the same way they came, but there it stopped." There used to be a proverb, "He must take him a house in Turnagain Lane."

 

A conduit formerly stood on Snow Hill, a little below the church. It is described as a building with four equal sides, ornamented with four columns and pediment, surmounted by a pyramid, on which stood a lamb—a rebus on the name of Lamb, from whose conduit in Red Lion Street the water came. There had been a conduit there, however, before Lamb's day, which was towards the close of the sixteenth century.

 

At No. 37, King Street, Snow Hill, there used to be a ladies' charity school, which was established in 1702, and remained in the parish 145 years. Dr. Johnson and Mrs. Thrale were subscribers to this school, and Johnson drew from it his story of Betty Broom, in "The Idler." The world of domestic service, in Betty's days, seems to have been pretty much as now. Betty was a poor girl, bred in the country at a charity-school, maintained by the contributions of wealthy neighbours. The patronesses visited the school from time to time, to see how the pupils got on, and everything went well, till "at last, the chief of the subscribers having passed a winter in London, came down full of an opinion new and strange to the whole country. She held it little less than criminal to teach poor girls to read and write. They who are born to poverty, she said, are born to ignorance, and will work the harder the less they know. She told her friends that London was in confusion by the insolence of servants; that scarcely a girl could be got for all-work, since education had made such numbers of fine ladies, that nobody would now accept a lower title than that of a waiting-maid, or something that might qualify her to wear laced shoes and long ruffles, and to sit at work in the parlour window. But she was resolved, for her part, to spoil no more girls. Those who were to live by their hands should neither read nor write out of her pocket. The world was bad enough already, and she would have no part in making it worse.

 

"She was for a long time warmly opposed; but she persevered in her notions, and withdrew her subscription. Few listen, without a desire of conviction, to those who advise them to spare their money. Her example and her arguments gained ground daily; and in less than a year the whole parish was convinced that the nation would be ruined if the children of the poor were taught to read and write." So the school was dissolved, and Betty with the rest was turned adrift into the wide and cold world; and her adventures there any one may read in "The Idler" for himself.

 

There is an entry in the school minutes of 1763, to the effect that the ladies of the committee censured the schoolmistress for listening to the story of the Cock Lane ghost, and "desired her to keep her belief in the article to herself."

 

Skinner Street—now one of the names of the past—which ran by the south side of St. Sepulchre's, and formed the connecting link between Newgate Street and Holborn, received its name from Alderman Skinner, through whose exertions, about 1802, it was principally built. The following account of Skinner Street is from the picturesque pen of Mr. William Harvey ("Aleph"), whose long familiarity with the places he describes renders doubly valuable his many contributions to the history of London scenes and people:—"As a building speculation," he says, writing in 1863, "it was a failure. When the buildings were ready for occupation, tall and substantial as they really were, the high rents frightened intending shopkeepers. Tenants were not to be had; and in order to get over the money difficulty, a lottery, sanctioned by Parliament, was commenced. Lotteries were then common tricks of finance, and nobody wondered at the new venture; but even the most desperate fortune-hunters were slow to invest their capital, and the tickets hung sadly on hand. The day for the drawing was postponed several times, and when it came, there was little or no excitement on the subject, and whoever rejoiced in becoming a house-owner on such easy terms, the original projectors and builders were understood to have suffered considerably. The winners found the property in a very unfinished condition. Few of the dwellings were habitable, and as funds were often wanting, a majority of the houses remained empty, and the shops unopened. After two or three years things began to improve; the vast many-storeyed house which then covered the site of Commercial Place was converted into a warehousing depôt; a capital house opposite the 'Saracen's Head' was taken by a hosier of the name of Theobald, who, opening his shop with the determination of selling the best hosiery, and nothing else, was able to convince the citizens that his hose was first-rate, and, desiring only a living profit, succeeded, after thirty years of unwearied industry, in accumulating a large fortune. Theobald was possessed of literary tastes, and at the sale of Sir Walter Scott's manuscripts was a liberal purchaser. He also collected a library of exceedingly choice books, and when aristocratic customers purchased stockings of him, was soon able to interest them in matters of far higher interest…

 

"The most remarkable shop—but it was on the left-hand side, at a corner house—was that established for the sale of children's books. It boasted an immense extent of window-front, extending from the entrance into Snow Hill, and towards Fleet Market. Many a time have I lingered with loving eyes over those fascinating story-books, so rich in gaily-coloured prints; such careful editions of the marvellous old histories, 'Puss in Boots,' 'Cock Robin,' 'Cinderella,' and the like. Fortunately the front was kept low, so as exactly to suit the capacity of a childish admirer. . . . . But Skinner Street did not prosper much, and never could compete with even the dullest portions of Holborn. I have spoken of some reputable shops; but you know the proverb, 'One swallow will not make a summer,' and it was a declining neighbourhood almost before it could be called new. In 1810 the commercial depôt, which had been erected at a cost of £25,000, and was the chief prize in the lottery, was destroyed by fire, never to be rebuilt—a heavy blow and discouragement to Skinner Street, from which it never rallied. Perhaps the periodical hanging-days exercised an unfavourable influence, collecting, as they frequently did, all the thieves and vagabonds of London. I never sympathised with Pepys or Charles Fox in their passion for public executions, and made it a point to avoid those ghastly sights; but early of a Monday morning, when I had just reached the end of Giltspur Street, a miserable wretch had just been turned off from the platform of the debtors' door, and I was made the unwilling witness of his last struggles. That scene haunted me for months, and I often used to ask myself, 'Who that could help it would live in Skinner Street?' The next unpropitious event in these parts was the unexpected closing of the child's library. What could it mean? Such a well-to-do establishment shut up? Yes, the whole army of shutters looked blankly on the inquirer, and forbade even a single glance at 'Sinbad' or 'Robinson Crusoe.' It would soon be re-opened, we naturally thought; but the shutters never came down again. The whole house was deserted; not even a messenger in bankruptcy, or an ancient Charley, was found to regard the playful double knocks of the neighbouring juveniles. Gradually the glass of all the windows got broken in, a heavy cloud of black dust, solidifying into inches thick, gathered on sills and doors and brickwork, till the whole frontage grew as gloomy as Giant Despair's Castle. Not long after, the adjoining houses shared the same fate, and they remained from year to year without the slightest sign of life—absolute scarecrows, darkening with their uncomfortable shadows the busy streets. Within half a mile, in Stamford Street, Blackfriars, there are (1863) seven houses in a similar predicament— window-glass demolished, doors cracked from top to bottom, spiders' webs hanging from every projecting sill or parapet. What can it mean? The loss in the article of rents alone must be over £1,000 annually. If the real owners are at feud with imaginary owners, surely the property might be rendered valuable, and the proceeds invested. Even the lawyers can derive no profit from such hopeless abandonment. I am told the whole mischief arose out of a Chancery suit. Can it be the famous 'Jarndyce v. Jarndyce' case? And have all the heirs starved each other out? If so, what hinders our lady the Queen from taking possession? Any change would be an improvement, for these dead houses make the streets they cumber as dispiriting and comfortless as graveyards. Busy fancy will sometimes people them, and fill the dreary rooms with strange guests. Do the victims of guilt congregate in these dark dens? Do wretches 'unfriended by the world or the world's law,' seek refuge in these deserted nooks, mourning in the silence of despair over their former lives, and anticipating the future in unappeasable agony? Such things have been—the silence and desolation of these doomed dwellings make them the more suitable for such tenants."

 

A street is nothing without a mystery, so a mystery let these old tumble-down houses remain, whilst we go on to tell that, in front of No. 58, the sailor Cashman was hung in 1817, as we have already mentioned, for plundering a gunsmith's shop there. William Godwin, the author of "Caleb Williams," kept a bookseller's shop for several years in Skinner Street, at No. 41, and published school-books in the name of Edward Baldwin. On the wall there was a stone carving of Æsop reciting one of his fables to children.

 

The most noteworthy event of the life of Godwin was his marriage with the celebrated Mary Wollstonecraft, authoress of a "Vindication of the Rights of Women," whose congenial mind, in politics and morals, he ardently admired. Godwin's account of the way in which they got on together is worth reading:—"Ours," he writes, "was not an idle happiness, a paradise of selfish and transitory pleasures. It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to mention, that influenced by ideas I had long entertained, I engaged an apartment about twenty doors from our house, in the Polygon, Somers Town, which I designed for the purpose of my study and literary occupations. Trifles, however, will be interesting to some readers, when they relate to the last period of the life of such a person as Mary. I will add, therefore, that we were both of us of opinion, that it was possible for two persons to be too uniformly in each other's society. Influenced by that opinion, it was my practice to repair to the apartment I have mentioned as soon as I rose, and frequently not to make my appearance in the Polygon till the hour of dinner. We agreed in condemning the notion, prevalent in many situations in life, that a man and his wife cannot visit in mixed society but in company with each other, and we rather sought occasions of deviating from than of complying with this rule. By this means, though, for the most part, we spent the latter half of each day in one another's society, yet we were in no danger of satiety. We seemed to combine, in a considerable degree, the novelty and lively sensation of a visit with the more delicious and heartfelt pleasure of a domestic life."

 

This philosophic union, to Godwin's inexpressible affliction, did not last more than eighteen months, at the end of which time Mrs. Godwin died, leaving an only daughter, who in the course of time became the second wife of the poet Shelley, and was the author of the wild and extraordinary tale of "Frankenstein."

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45116

How could this genius have quickly died? Like all authentic geniuses, earthly life has no real flavor, the real world seemed too insignificant for an unequal struggle with the astral cares of a body associated with the nourishment of the mind. This explains too well the representation of the digestive systems and a body diminished by its impulses connected with the members of its body, as for example with the members of an elitist circle, these members must pass into a principle of uniqueness: the monad.

 

Basquiat is unfortunately described as a suffering being, the incomprehension of his commentators is sad because it is superficial and without spiritual foundations. The analysis of the tortured artist is only a projection of phantasms without any mystical analysis.

 

"There is a graphomaniac quality to almost all of Basquiat’s work. He liked to scribble, to amend, to footnote, to second-guess and to correct himself. Words jumped out at him, from the back of cereal boxes or subway ads, and he stayed alert to their subversive properties, their double and hidden meaning. His notebooks, recently published in an exquisite facsimile by Princeton, are full of stray phrases, odd combinations. When he began painting, working up to it by way of hand-coloured collaged postcards, it was objects he went for first, drawing and writing on refrigerators, clothes, cabinets and doors, regardless of whether they belonged to him or not…

…A Basquiat alphabet: alchemy, an evil cat, black soap, corpus, cotton, crime, crimée, crown, famous, hotel, king, left paw, liberty, loin, milk, negro, nothing to be gained here, Olympics, Parker, police, PRKR, sangre, soap, sugar, teeth.

These were words he used often, names he returned to turning language into a spell to repel ghosts. The evident use of codes and symbols inspires a sort of interpretation-mania on the part of curators. But surely part of the point of the crossed-out lines and erasing hurricanes of colour is that Basquiat is attesting to the mutability of language, the way it twists and turns according to the power status of the speaker. Crimée is not the same as criminal, negro alters in different mouths, cotton might stand literally for slavery but also for fixed hierarchies of meaning and the way people get caged inside them." At The Guardian, Olivia Laing, the eminently readable author of To the River, The Trip to Echo Spring, and The Lonely City, on artist Jean-Michel Basquiat.

 

Can we find this analysis a little literalistic or superficial? Hughes Songe offers you another reading option:

Basquiat's painting can be seen in Genesis (3:24), when God drives Adam out of Paradise, he establishes two cherubs with a sword leading to the Tree of Life. Revelation I, 16 describes a two-edged sword coming out of the Word's mouth: "He had in his right hand seven stars, and out of his mouth came a two-edged and sharp sword; his face was as bright as the sun in its strength. »

 

We can also pursue Genesis as two knight men who draw a symbolic battle, the one on the left comes from the East, so he is already initiated and probably in connection with the astral as indicated by his crown of christic thorns or as the statue of liberty, his sword is a blade, or a soul, that is to say that he carries the light. The right-wing knight comes from the West and reminds us that the Western Knights Templar were initiated in Jerusalem. The Knight Kadosh is the synthesis of the two men who clash to become immortal. Venerable Master of Ceremonies, invites them to meet on the square in front of a temple and at the Areopagus Gate the Knights of the Sun who are seeking admission to the thirty-third degree. The first recorded representation of the degree "Knight Kadosh" can be linked to the Council of Eastern and Western Emperors in 1758.

 

Here is a possible reading grid to understand this painting by JM Basquiat. Perhaps we need to come up with ethnocentric analyses on voodoo or Amerindian rites or worse on the life of a neurotic, even drugged person, all this is told by the guides to reassure us better to be in the norm.

A genius is necessarily not readable in a grid formatted for art journalists?

 

The numbers on the painting could be understood? Is this just a hypothetical version for those who believe in a higher life?

 

1

It is necessary to be aligned to connect with the astral, blue is its color, a blue square is under the sword to find its verticality. the Sufi's fight is not a horizontal fight against the other, for a material conquest, but an inner vertical fight, for a spiritual quest; which leads to the one of them, for the benefit of the other. In esotericism, some groups use a sword without a point as a symbol of balance. The orange sun of the background illuminates and burns, the light of the Spiritual Principle is the purifying fire materialized by the lightning, archetype of the sword. The flash is lightning... so the Truth lightens the error by cutting through the darkness of ignorance. The Knight Kadosch will understand that this sword can only be for him the sword of the Spirit, this force that will allow him to separate Good from Evil, Justice from injustice and to make sure that the Light of Truth guides all his actions. It is this unifying force, this One that is consubstantial to us and that we finally manage to make shine. Only a complete universe, responsible before our conscience and rich in knowledge and love, will we be able to act and perform our role as soldiers of the universal and the Heavenly.

 

2 The sword of the Western Redhorse is tilted at 33 degrees to indicate his request, he is not in balance and may be wearing a slipper. The sword is the divine word, it is the Word and it is the greatest gift since to have the sword is to have the Word of Life which is the instrument of justice which comes to skin the bottom of the painting. The scythe of death is just above....

 

3 The sword is the symbol of the Logos, the Word, having a double edge, therefore the double power, the knight no longer needs a mouth to express himself because he uses telepathy.

 

4 He has a big mouth that comes to him from the bottom world, his words are too human to access the planes of higher consciousness.

 

5 The corpus of Knight Kadosh is squared as the symbol of the Earth, it is also squared to be perfect. His heart became his soul.

 

6 The Western Knight still has a scale of 7 steps to climb before freeing himself from the slavery of his own inner body.

 

7 he must move on a chessboard or mosaic paving stone to balance his thoughts

 

8 the arrows symbolize the action of Time, they are in

opposition to mean that Real Time no longer exists, we are already in eternity (ether n T)

 

9 a black phallic symbol can indicate a first act of the transmutation work, followed by white, red and finally yellow (4 essential colours of the painting with astral blue)

 

10. The Great Architect of the United to Heaven (Universal) has left his compass and put his square upside down, for the true World lives hidden beneath the Earth. To the Glory of the coronation the Grand Knight Kadosch to his investiture of the duties, charges and dignitaries related to this quality and confers on him the faculty to enjoy all the rights and prerogatives attached to this rank. (He successively strikes the right shoulder and then the left shoulder of each new Knight with the blade of his sword) Knights, rise up and receive, in the name of all the Kadosch Knights, the fraternal embrace. (The standard bearer puts the standard back in its place and the Master of Ceremonies decorates the new Knights with the attributes of their rank. (The Commander takes his place in his throne and then, addressing the new Knights: Knights, you are now armed for your battle. Your weapon is not the dagger of the Sicarius, nor the knife of the executioner, nor the stylus of the calumniator, because the means of your action are located on a higher plane. Your weapon is the flaming sword of Michael Saint, the inflexible spear of George Saint, the Caduceus of Mercury. What you touch with its tip must be ennobled and placed at your side in the service of the cause for which you are fighting.

 

11 you have to climb the first 13 ranks to reach the 33rd, no step on the ladder is the same, the human experience is carried out in two different and, in many ways, incompatible ways. Here they are represented by the two amounts of this mystical scale. On the one hand, the disciplines of intelligence, science and technology that assume and affirm determinism. Venerable Master of Ceremonies, have two of our recipients symbolically walk through them (the Master of Ceremonies makes the recipients read, step by step, the names of the sciences inscribed therein: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy)

 

12 A for Alchemy or Amorous and Astral ( SPIRITU ASTRA ERA), it is still a ladder to climb towards the High Grades. The symbol of the scale must be linked to the meaning of the weapons that Knight Kadosch has at his disposal to carry out his fight successfully. The scale that will allow her to access the highest level of metaphysical knowledge and in this sense, she becomes almost mystical. The aim here and now is to ensure that the binary that manages its destiny, which is the main characteristic of daily existence, is resolved, integrated into the unitary principle, into the Creative Principle. This can only be considered as something ineffable, only conceivable on a level that exceeds us, on a supra-human level. It is in fact the concept of the original Light, the very Light that prevails in all our endeavors on the initiatory path since we once knocked at the temple door and gives meaning to this quest. The scale nowadays is therefore double, stable, composed of two uprights and seven steps on each side. It is possible to climb it indifferently from one side or the other, but the process, in the initiatory progression towards the Principle, resembles the ascending path, that of Love, the ultimate goal of our process. Look up there it reads A a a a.......

 

13 Knight Kadosh has achieved his decorporation and now he is levitating above his ghost feet (white). We can also say that there is shade because an obstacle stands in the way and prevents the passage of light. The first awareness of the dark side is the shadow that each person takes with them. No matter how much we run, this shadow follows us everywhere. The only way to remove them is by light: the sun must reach us in such a way, for example when they are plumb, and the shadow must then remain under our feet.

 

14 The Western Knight: Knight, for a long time with different degrees ( 11th, 13th, 15th, 17th, 18th, 21st, 22nd, 25th, 28th and 30th) who refer to this distinction. It is linked to the lower ranks and to Earth's gravitation, it rotates on itself and around the golden background that symbolizes humanity's central star: the sun.

We can also note that the background is golden like an integral transmutation, becoming this light is the quest of Knight Kadosh, he no longer needs the apron of learning...

 

The ceremony is coming to an end, Knights of the South Camp, I invite you to recognize now for Grand Chosen Knights Kadosch, the Knights present between the two camps... Knights of the North Camp, I invite you to recognize from now on Grand Chosen Kadosch Knights, the Knights present between the two camps. Since this action seems to be the finality of the journey of a mystic, in general, and that of the Knight Kadosch, in particular; why does it take, then today, the form of combat, for the one who has reached the end of his individual initiation, and fight for Life what is more?

 

While trying to provide an answer to this question, we will try to bring the struggle of the Kadosch Knight closer to that of the Sufi mystic, as a "wali" knight, that is to say, Saint, adept of the futuwa, this spiritual knighthood of the Muslim world.

 

"Knight, my Brother, You are armed now for the fight of Life"

 

Certainly; each term has its importance, in this affirmative sentence, and undoubtedly contributes to give it its power, depth and dynamism. However, the adverb "now" is, in my opinion, the key to its front door. Because not only does it indicate a real limit in space; (where? At the 30th degree of the pyramid of the Rite, the end of the ascending realization, of the adept,) and in time (when? At the end of the consecration ceremony, of the knight), but thus placed just after the adjective "armed", it implicitly means that before having reached the 30th degree, and before having been dubbed there; the adept is not really armed to lead a fight, and even less to fight the fight of life.

And yet; the adept has carried many different weapons and fought many battles during his evolution on the scale of the Rite. Indeed, from the 11th degree; Sublime Chivalry Chosen, Excellent Emereck, "True Man in All Circumstances", armed with the sword of justice, by King Solomon, whose motto is "to win or die." he had engaged, in a singular struggle, his life to death, for a noble and just cause. It is precisely for a just purpose that, with the sword in one hand, the trowel in the other; Knight of the East and of the Sword, he was called upon to build the Temple with one hand and to defend it with the other. His motto was "freedom to pass", which is why he had to fight to cross the Gandhara bridge and thus pass from the material world to the spiritual world. His struggle, although physical, was ultimately of spiritual significance. Armed with his sword; Knight of the East and West, conscious of the need to fight the misdeeds of intolerance, prejudice and fanaticism; Kadosch was the pilgrim Knight, working to be recognized as the son of the Light. He fought to reconcile extreme opposites; East and West, shadow and light and thus try to overcome duality. Although his only material weapon was his pilgrim's staff, symbol of the axis mundi and the inner struggles, he took the oath, as a Knight Rose Cross (return to the point), on the sword of justice, promising to defend the weak and relieve the afflicted. He proposed as his goal to "fight pride, selfishness and ambition, to make devotion and Charity prevail in their place". In the defense of the True, the Good and the Righteous, prowess, generosity, such was his chivalrous ideal. If it is true that the struggles that Kadosch has fought so far are a necessary condition, although insufficient to lead the struggle of life, the accomplishment of this journey, made in the practice of Chivalric Virtues, fully contributes to his qualification and to that aptitude, which the Most Powerful Grand Master recognizes in him, and this by considering him worthy to fight, finally, in the ranks of the Militia of the Temple.

 

If any fight involves a certain preparation, and a certain skill, it requires, however, weapons.

 

"You're armed now."

 

The weapon, for the fight of Life, of the Knight Kadosch, who adorns his ribbon, is certainly not the dagger with which Johabert, thirsty for revenge and blood, killed Abairam, Hiram's murderer, by beheading him.His weapon being of a different type, his fight will necessarily be of a different nature because, led on other levels.

 

"In the name of God, Saint Michael and Saint George, I make you a knight"

 

Thus, three types of weapons are suggested: the Caduceus of Mercury, the sword of Saint Michael, and the spear of Saint George. On the other hand, the main weapon of the Grand Knight Kadosch is clearly designated to him and presented by the Mighty Grand Master as soon as he descends the Mystical Scale:

 

"Behold, behold, the Caduceus of Mercury, everything you touch with the tip of this weapon shall be transformed into pure gold.

 

Is it three in one? For his weapon will be at the same time, his "magic wand that will conjure up the spell of matter, his flaming sword that will transform the events, his Kherub's sword that will reopen the gates of Paradise to him." The injunction given by the Most Powerful Grand Master to the Knight Kadosch, who has just been consecrated, "works. Go to the mode. The road is clear," he said, leaving no doubt as to where his fight would take place. His action, as a collaborator of the Great Architect of the Universe "my rights consist in not submitting myself to the decrees of Divine law but, to collaborate in them" has no meaning unless it is carried out in the world of manifestation.

His action will be carried out, in accordance with the motto of our Order "ORDO AB CHAO DEUS MEUMQUE JUS", an Order that he first began to carry out in himself, because it is necessary to "Defeat our passion" by rectifying himself, by freeing himself, after having won the fight against his ego, this Holy War that the Sufi calls: the Great Jihad.On this level, the two Knights are fighting the same battle, because the Sufi's fight is not a horizontal fight against the other, for a material conquest, but an inner vertical fight, for a spiritual quest; which leads to the one of them, for the benefit of the other. It is this passage from the heroic to the mystical epic that constitutes, for the Sufi knight, the passage from the small jihad to the great jihad, the true "holy war".

 

"All heroes have always fought the snake to defeat it and force it to serve." Then with his flaming sword, like the Archangel Saint Michael, Prince of the Celestial Militia, he defeated the dragon to control and control it. And if he spares his life, it is because he knows that if he dies, he will no longer be of any use. It is therefore better to convert it. Thus, victorious over Saton, the adversary; his fight, far from being destructive, is constructive, full of promise and Life. It is in this sense that we can say that the Sword of the Knight Kadosch is the weapon of his holy war, waged against the errors of the corporeal dimension and leading to his reconciliation with the spiritual dimension. It is through this Flaming Sword that the Venerable Master creates, constitutes and receives the Neophyte Apprentice. It is through it that the symbolic passage from the profane to the initiated to chivalry or by analogy to alchemy takes place. His weapon is indeed transformative of its essential nature Now armed with his weapons of Light, the caduceus of Mercury, the flaming sword of Saint Michael and the inflexible spear of Saint George, who left alone in the world, without fear or reproach, the Knight of the White and Black Eagle, remembers that the last journey of any initiation ceremony is always a projection into the future of the initiate's journey. The time has therefore come for him to finally put into action the sentence of the Secret Master's last trip: "What chivalry asks you to do is to promote justice". It is therefore here in the manifested world that he must participate effectively in the restoration of the Order, in his soul and conscience, in accordance with the Divine Plans perceived at the top of the Mystical Scale, and this "NON NOBIS, DOMINE, NON NOBIS, SED NOMINI TUO DA GLORIAM".

 

If the Knight Kadosch, Being of Light, thus armed, now has the right to initiative to act and fight, it is because he has succeeded in climbing the seven steps of the Mystical Ladder, and purified by Sophie's tire, he has received the supreme initiation. It is because he has conquered, as a result, this freedom of the creature so sought "for those who have overcome the obstacles", the one that is conquered "beyond the limits of the realms of forms".

  

The Western Knight masters this degree of proximity to the principle, "Nec plus Ultra", separated, he received his mission order, and took, when he turned around at this summit, "the commitment not to suffer the events, but to transform them.

 

While the Eastern Knight, inspired by Sufi gnoseology, who arrives at this "station of the heart", who becomes protected from God "Wali" and who receives from his Master the secrets of esoteric Knowledge "Gnosis" and the investiture of the "Baraka", submits himself entirely to God.

 

Their weapons, although both of divine nature: the Caduceus of Mercury for one, the "Baraka" for the other, do not, however, have the same scope. For the "Baraka" received by Knight Wali, as "protected and "friend of God", appears as a reward for "effort given", given to those who have committed themselves to the path of the "Hakika", the Truth, by submitting to the Divine Law. Mediator between God and men, in the service of his fellow men, the Wali, is ready to help the weak and heal the sick by the powers of the "Baraka" of which he is invested, however, his remedy, even if it is effective, will only act on the surface, just on the wound of the wounded, or on the evil from which the sick suffer. While the Caduceus of Mercury of the Knight Kadosch, the intercessor, acts in depth by rectifying and transforming the material. Everything he touches with the tip of his fingers will turn into pure gold. It is by transmutation that he operates on matter by spiritualizing it. His purpose is not limited to healing the patient's wounds or ridding him of his pain, but to make him a doctor, so that he can in turn heal and heal all those who suffer from the evils caused by darkness in order to free them from all oppression and injustice.

 

Thus he will be entitled to think, like Albert Camus, "I understood that it was not enough to denounce injustice, you had to give your life to fight it".

 

To fight to conquer Freedom for others, it seems to me, is one of the senses of the Fight for the Life of the Knight Kadosch, a fight he must lead armed with his Caduceus of Mercury, that is, his own spiritual power, resulting from the synthesis of his past experiences and victories.

 

"In order to allow the infinite irradiation of the pure Being, the true sovereign, to manifest itself"

 

If there is no doubt, that being continuously at the service of others, in a relationship of otherness, by surpassing the ego, constitutes both the fundamental bases of the knightly ideal of the Kadosch knight and those of the Sufi knight; this spirituality, despite these obvious similarities, and although it leads to the same Principle, differs in certain respects.

 

The Sufi Knight, who bases his spirituality on his Islamic faith, by placing his destiny entirely in the hands of God, sees his actions guided by a transcendent determinism, and therefore his freedom of action in the world being limited, he directs his struggle essentially against his inner enemies and particularly against "El Nefs", his ego. In his spiritual quest, it is God's love that makes him love man. While the knight Kadosch, who takes his destiny in hand, who bases his spirituality on his alchemical faith and on that which he has in the perfectibility of man, positions himself as a collaborator of the Great Architect of the Universe. And from the moment his action necessarily turned towards the outside, his mission, as a Universal Man, is to transmit his knowledge. And his struggle, armed with his Caduceus of Mercury, who is none other than himself, will be to devote his entire Life to perfecting the world, in accordance with the plans of the Principle.

 

In this perspective, it is precisely the love of man that makes him love God.

 

Certainly Love and self-giving are the common vectors that motivate the struggles of the two spiritual knights, but if the knightly behaviour of one is aimed at the future opening of the gates of heavenly paradise for oneself; the goal of the other is the happiness, here and now, of all humanity, in the perspective of the coming of the Holy Kingdom.

 

Basquiat is now armed for the fight of Life

Using too much Picasa2, I tribute to Saint Patrick and his marvelous work on the Emerald Isle. It resulted some claim in later saving Western Civilization as barbarians took control from the Romans of much of what we now call Europe. Ahhh, the lessons History has!

____________________

Saint Patrick (Latin: Patricius[2], Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Christian missionary and is the patron saint of Ireland along with Brigid of Kildare and Columba. Patrick was born in Roman Britain. When he was about sixteen he was captured by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Ireland, where he lived for six years before escaping and returning to his family. He entered the church, as his father and grandfather had before him, becoming a deacon and a bishop. He later returned to Ireland as a missionary, working in the north and west of the island, but little is known about the places where he actually worked and no link can be made with Patrick and any church. By the eighth century he had become the patron saint of Ireland. The Irish monastery system evolved after the time of Patrick and the Irish church did not develop the diocesan model that Patrick and the other early missionaries had tried to establish.

 

The available body of evidence does not allow the dates of Patrick's life to be fixed with certainty, but it appears that he was active as a missionary in Ireland during the second half of the fifth century. Two letters from him survive, along with later hagiographies from the seventh century onwards. Many of these works cannot be taken as authentic traditions. Uncritical acceptance of the Annals of Ulster (see below) would imply that he lived from 378 to 493, and ministered in modern day northern Ireland from 433 onwards.

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Patrick

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Have you discerned who is an alien? It is not always UFO invaders without travel permits from the Men In Black (MIB).

 

Of course, the answer changes in each nation over time. History reminds that

many tribes of Indians shared the North American Continent until the immigrants came.

 

How much prejudice and bias rings through to you on hearing or reading: "They are aliens, different by skin, culture, language, and/or nationality from me."

 

Is it like calling the kettle black, just because you or your ancestors got here before the next wave of immigrants crossing the border? Are we all not descendants of Adam and Eve? Are we all not the children of one God, by whatever name you call HIM?

 

How many citizens of the U.S.A. have any IRISH blood in their veins, as too many more wannabes claim to be for at least St. Patrick's Day. Aliens, we are each one of them when viewed from a perspective abnormal.

 

Martin Luther King and many civil rights revolutionaries fought violence with non-violence in the U.S.A. during the decade of the 1960s and thereafter. Aided by the nation's federal court judges and a reluctant U.S. Congress, laws were changed and even enforced sometimes. A woman became legally able to marry a man regardless of the color of his skin. She could and did, even if it resulted in her being shunned by many and sometimes killed for BREAKING THE COLOR LINE. Man, woman, and child became able to legally sleep, eat, live, work, and travel any where they wanted, even in the DEEP SOUTH and segregated NORTHERN cities. Even before those changes in laws, the U.S.A. was called the great LAND OF THE FREE. Of course, that was just dreamy words for many U.S. citizens due to race, prejudice, ethnicity, and poverty.

 

While the U.S.A. continues to export freedom by dollars, corporations, and its military, pray true freedom can blossom and continue back inside the U.S.A. for all.

___________________________________

I was blessed this morning by this e-mail from my best friend,

 

The road to success is not straight. There is a curve called Failure, a loop called Confusion, speed bumps called Friends, red lights called Enemies, caution lights called Family. You will have flats called Jobs. But, if you have a spare called Determination, an engine called Perseverance, insurance called Faith, a driver called Jesus, you will make it to a place called Success.

 

Philippians 4:13 --- I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.

 

Consider passing this on to the ten people whom you most want to see blessed. (I did!)

 

___________________________________

With little time to keep up with THE NEWS, register to get “FREE” headlines from below.

___________

boston.com has a good story to aid learning of

the background of 2/3 of final presidential 2008 candidates.

If interested, check out:

www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/03/16/in_memoirs...

 

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Texas’ Austin American Statesman newspaper intrigues me from

newsletters@letters.statesman.com explaining that about some workings at WPP Group, PLC, which has about 100,000 employees who work in 2,000 offices in 106 countries, according to its Web site, won a three-year, $4.5 billion Dell Inc. advertising and marketing account late in 2007. Check out:

www.statesman.com/blogs/content/shared-gen/blogs/austin/t...

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cnn.com/entertainment

Stop Kissing And Showing on Film lead to warrant to arrest but

court withdrew that warrant for Richard Gere. Learn more at:

www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/03/14/gere.kiss.ap/index.html

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cnsnews@mail.mediaresearch.org teaches that death leads to being Cremated or Buried, right? No, for Human remains found in dumpster of Abortion Clinic. Learn the rest of the story at:

www.cnsnews.com/ViewCulture.asp?Page=/Culture/archive/200...

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latimes.com has an important story to aid additional loss of personal privacy from payment by cell phone which includes “We know where you are at all times”.

If interested in learning more, read:

www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-lazarus16mar16,0,6520317.c...

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latimes.com calculates “Price Tag of Terrors War”, will take years to pay off.

If interested in learning more, read:

www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-op-bilmes16mar16,0,389827...

___________

Star Wars fans await Lucas’ next episodes: cartoons at the movies and 100 hours on TV. More at:

www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Movies/03/14/film.starwars.ap/in...

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Your prayers are seriously needed for prompt miracle on and full recovery of our friend INDEE. Learn more on identical injury from latimes.com that educates well on the pain and slow recovery, if any, after ACL (not ACLU) injury,

 

For why injured turn to local doctor (or also to our Heavenly Physician Finest), read:

www.latimes.com/news/la-me-knee15mar15,0,1715099.story?tr...

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Benedict XVI to Youth: Don't Sell Your Soul

Hears Confessions of Young People Preparing for Sydney

 

VATICAN CITY, MARCH 14, 2008 (Zenit.org).- Benedict XVI told youth to be on guard against the possibility of selling or losing their own humanity, and encouraged them instead to stay open to the Holy Spirit.

 

The Pope spoke with youth Thursday when he presided over a penitential liturgy with young people from Rome in preparation for the 23rd World Youth Day, to be held in Australia this summer. He joined with hundreds of other priests to hear the confessions of the youth.

 

"At the roots of being Christian," the Holy Father told the young people, "is an encounter with an event, with a Person. This opens a new horizon and, with it, a decisive sense of direction." In order "to favor this encounter, you are preparing to open your hearts to God, confessing your sins and -- by the action of the Holy Spirit and through the ministry of the Church -- receiving forgiveness and peace."

 

"Thus," he added, "we make room in ourselves for the presence of the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Blessed Trinity which is the 'soul' and the 'vital breath' of Christian life. The Spirit helps us to grow 'in an understanding of Jesus that becomes ever deeper and more joyful and, at the same time, to put the Gospel into practice.'"

 

Hiding an empty life

 

On this subject, the Pontiff recalled one of his own Pentecost meditations when he was archbishop of Munich and Freising, inspired by the film "Seelenwanderung," in which one of the characters sells his soul in exchange for worldly success: "From the moment he freed himself of his soul, he no longer had any scruples or humanity, providing striking evidence of how the facade of success often hides an empty life.

 

"A human being cannot throw away his own soul, because it is the soul that makes him human. [...] Yet he does have the frightening possibility of being inhuman, of remaining a person but at the same time selling or losing his own humanity.

 

"The distance between the human person and the inhuman being is immense, yet it cannot be demonstrated; it is what is truly important, yet it is apparently without importance."

 

Likewise, Benedict XVI continued, the Holy Spirit "cannot be seen with the eyes. Whether it enters into a person or not, it cannot be seen or demonstrated; but it changes and renews all the perspectives of human life. The Holy Spirit does not change the exterior situations of life, but the interior."

 

"Let us then," he said, "prepare ourselves, with a sincere examination of conscience, to present ourselves before the people to whom Christ entrusted the ministry of reconciliation. [...] Thus will we experience true joy, the joy that derives from the mercy of God, flows into our hearts and reconciles us to him. [...] Be bearers of this joy, which comes from welcoming the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and witness its fruits in your own lives.

 

"Always remember that you are 'temples of the Spirit.' Allow him to dwell in you and humbly obey his commands, in order to make your own contribution to the building of the Church and to discern the type of vocation to which the Lord calls you. [...] Be generous, allow yourselves to be helped by using the sacrament of confession and by the practice of spiritual guidance."

 

A Vatican welcome

 

Benedict XVI concluded his remarks by recalling how 25 years ago, Pope John Paul II inaugurated the San Lorenzo Youth Center near the Vatican "to facilitate the welcome of young people, the sharing of experiences and the witness of faith and, above all, the prayer that helps us to discover the love of God."

 

On that March 13, 1983, John Paul II said: "Where can we go in this world, with sin and guilt, without the cross? The cross takes upon itself all the misery of the world, which is born of sin. It is the sign of grace. [...] It encourages us to sacrifice ourselves for others."

 

"May this experience be renewed for you today," Benedict XVI said. "Look to the cross now, and let us accept God's love which is given to us by the cross, by the Holy Spirit which comes from the pierced side of the Lord and, as John Paul II said: 'Yourselves become redeemers of the young people of the world.'"

 

Léonard de Vinci. 1452-1549. Florence, Milan.

La Joconde. Portrait de Mona Lisa. 1503-1506.

Louvre.

 

LA JOCONDE. L'HUMANISME. LA VIE

 

20.000 visiteurs par jour c'est une preuve : les peuples ne se trompent pas : C'est BEAU. C'est même universellement beau, ce qui est encore plus intéressant.

Mais quel sens a ce tableau ? Cela est plus difficile à percevoir. Le tableau est pourtant parfaitement figuratif. "Imiter la nature à la perfection", comme l'a écrit Giorgio Vasari à propos de la Joconde, nécessairement, c'est de l'art figuratif.

Donc ce serait le portrait d'une florentine, Lisa Gherardini, épouse de Francesco del Giocondo.

Il n'en est rien, en fait. La Joconde est hautement symbolique, exotérique et ésotérique, et même, sans aucun doute, de manière multiple, non univoque. La Joconde est un tableau emblématique de l'Humanisme. C'est un tableau essentiellement idéologique :

A/ La Joconde : L'annonce de la nouvelle religion de l'Homme.

B/ La Joconde : La Vie. L'Absolu.

 

A/ La Joconde : l'annonce de la nouvelle religion de l'Homme.

Ce tableau n'est pas seulement le portrait d'une femme précisément nommée. L'expression énigmatique, impersonnelle n'est pas un hasard. Léonard de Vinci n'imite pas la nature au point de chercher à exprimer les petites pensées et les émotions banales de Lisa Gherardini. La Joconde est peinte aussi génériquement et symboliquement que les Vierges à l'Enfant de tout la peinture Byzantine, Romane ou Gothique. Elle n'est pas le portrait d'une personne, d'une individualité. La Joconde c'est une femme, mais abstraite, épurée, dont toute expression d'une personnalité particulière a été soigneusement effacée.

Pourquoi ?

Parce que la Joconde c'est le portrait de l'homme, de l'Homme en majuscules, l'être humain.

C'est le tableau symbolique de la nouvelle idéologie, la nouvelle religion de l'Homme, alors juste naissante, en Occident, une idéologie encore dans les langes au 16è siècle, et triomphante seulement de nos jours.

La Joconde, c'est essentiel : ce n'est plus la Vierge. Ou une Sainte.

Ouf ! Enfin !

Pour certains grands Esprits, Eclairés, Initiés, c'est une Renaissance !!!

La Joconde c'est le tableau qui explique, en image, pourquoi toute la période a été appelée par les historiens occidentaux : La Renaissance.

Vers 1500 l'Europe, éclairée par la Raison triomphante, commence à sortir de mille ans d'obscurantisme catholique.

La Joconde c'est ainsi l'annonce que la religion de l'Homme va, à terme, en Occident, remplacer la religion de Dieu.

Il faudra encore quelques siècles pour y arriver. Au 16è siècle il n'y a pas d'affrontement entre le Catholicisme et l'Humanisme. C'est pourquoi les Papes sont humanistes, et protègent Raphaël, Vinci et Michel Ange.

C'est pourquoi Léonard de Vinci a aussi peint la "Sainte Anne" et "Saint Jean Baptiste" (Le Louvre), "la Vierge aux Rochers" (Louvre et National Gallery), une "Annonciation" et une "Adoration des Mages" (Offices), une "Cène" (Milan Santa Maria delle Grazie) .

L'Affrontement va venir, plus tard, avec la "Réforme", et avec les "Lumières". Quand l'Humanisme va devenir anti-catholique et athée. Quand l'Occident abandonnera l'Humanisme pour adopter l'Hommisme.

 

B/ La Joconde : la Vie. l'Absolu.

Car la Joconde, peut être la seule oeuvre que Léonard de Vinci a achevé, est une oeuvre beaucoup plus subtile qu'un drapeau des "Lumières", une "Déesse Raison" ou une "Statue de la Liberté".

Elle peut être comprise tout autrement, et même totalement à l'inverse de l'interprétation précédente.

La Joconde est plus que le portrait d'une femme,

La Joconde est plus que le portrait de l'Homme, compris de manière matérialiste et évolutionniste.

La Joconde c'est le portrait de la Vie.

La Vie dans l'Univers.

La Vie : toute la Vie, la Vie de tous les Etres. La Vie des "Dix mille Etres", pour reprendre une expression bouddhiste. La Vie Innommable, et Incompréhensible, comme la Mort. C'est l'explication de son expression psychologique limitée à un léger sourire énigmatique et à un regard qui ne révèle rien de ses pensées.

L'Univers : C'est le sens du paysage fantastique, fantasmagorique, qui est à l'arrière plan.

Cette compréhension de la Joconde est l'explication du succès, a priori étonnant, de ce tableau auprès des populations asiatiques. C'est sans aucun doute la marque d'un très grand esprit que d'avoir réussi à peindre une oeuvre qui transcende les siècles et fait se rejoindre les cultures.

La Joconde symbolise ce que les Hindouistes appellent "l'Atman" ou "Le Brahman", et ce que les Taoïstes appellent "Le Souffle", "le Tao".

La Joconde c'est le Soi, le principe spirituel universel, qui est le substrat de toutes les individualités vivantes.

De toutes les individualités vivantes, mais particulièrement de l'Homme. L'Atman, qui est le Soi éternel et universel qui se fond dans l’Âme suprême, l’Absolu, appelé aussi Brahman.

La Joconde peut ainsi être interprétée de manière métaphysique, cosmogonique et eschatologique : « Tu es cela ». « Notre vrai Moi est Dieu, Le Moi et Dieu ne font qu’un".

L'académicien français, François Cheng (Cheng Chi-Hsien né en 1929), a écrit que "La peinture chinoise est fondée sur une conception taoïste du monde qui convie l’homme à entrer en communion avec l’univers considéré comme vivant." Il aurait pu parler en ces termes, tout aussi bien, de la Joconde.

 

Le double symbolisme de la Joconde est le reflet d'un Humanisme qui fait encore bon ménage avec la religion, un humanisme qui n'est pas anti-catholique, qui n'est pas encore devenu une religion de l'Homme. Un Hommisme.

Enfin, il est intéressant d'observer que l'art européen, pour symboliser l'Homme, ou la Vie, ou Dieu, ou l'Absolu, a pris pour modèle une femme. Une fois de plus. Car la Vierge joue le rôle d' une déesse, à la suite de tant d'autres figures de la pensée religieuse humaine : Les "Déesses Mères", Isis, Gaïa ou Vénus.

 

THE JOCONDE. THE HUMANISM. THE LIFE

 

20.000 visitors per day is a proof: the peoples are not mistaken: It is BEAU. It is even universally beautiful, which is even more interesting.

But what is the meaning of this picture? This is more difficult to perceive. The painting is nevertheless perfectly figurative. " imitate nature to perfection", as Giorgio Vasari wrote about the Mona Lisa, it is necessarily figurative art.

So it would be the portrait of a Florentine, Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo.

It is not, in fact. The Mona Lisa is highly symbolic, exoteric and esoteric, and even, undoubtedly, in a multiple, non-univocal way. The Mona Lisa is an emblematic painting of Humanism. It is essentially an ideological picture.

A / The Mona Lisa: the announcement of the new religion of Man.

B / The Mona Lisa: The Life. The Absolute.

 

A / The Mona Lisa: the announcement of the new religion of Man.

This table is not only a portrait of a woman specifically named. The enigmatic, impersonal expression is not a coincidence. Leonardo da Vinci does not imitate the nature to the point of seeking to express the little thoughts and mundane emotions of Lisa del Gherardini. The Mona Lisa is painted as generically and symbolically as the Virgin and Child of all Byzantine, Romanesque or Gothic painting. It is not the portrait of a person, of an individuality. The Mona Lisa is a woman, but abstract, purified, whose any expression of a particular personality has been carefully erased.

Why ?

Because the Mona Lisa is the portrait of the man, of the Man in capital letters, the human being.

It is the symbolic picture of the new ideology, the new religion of Human, then just emerging in the West, an ideology still in its infancy in the 16th century, and triumphant only of our days.

The Mona Lisa it is essential: it is no longer the Virgin. Or a Holy Woman.

Phew! At last !

For some great Spirits, Enlightened, Initiated, it is a Renaissance!

The Mona Lisa is the painting that explains, in image, why the whole period was called by Western historians: The Renaissance.

Towards 1500, Europe, illuminated by the triumphant Reason, began to emerge from a thousand years of Catholic obscurantism.

The Mona Lisa is so the announcement that the religion of Man will, in the long-term, in the West, replace the religion of God.

It will take still a few centuries to achieve this purpose. In the 16th century there is no confrontation between Catholicism and Humanism. This is why the Popes are humanists, and protect Raphael, Vinci and Michelangelo.

This is why, Leonardo da Vinci painted the "Saint Anne" and "Saint John the Baptist" (The Louvre), "the Virgin with the Rocks" (Louvre and National Gallery), an "Annunciation" and an "Adoration of the Magi". (Offices), a "Supper" (Milan Santa Maria delle Grazie).

The confrontation will come, later, with the "Reformation", and with the "Lights". When the Humanism becomes anti-Catholic and atheist. When the West abandons the Humanism to adopt the Hommism.

 

B / The Mona Lisa: The Life. The Absolute.

Because the Mona Lisa, perhaps the only work that Leonardo da Vinci has finished, is a work much more subtle than a flag of the "Enlightenment", a "Goddess of Reason" or a " Statue of Liberty ".

It can be understood quite differently, and even totally in contrast to the previous interpretation.

The Mona Lisa is more than the portrait of a woman,

The Mona Lisa is more than the portrait of the Man, understood in a materialistic and evolutionary way.

The Mona Lisa is the portrait of the Life.

The Life in the Universe.

The Life: all Life, the Life of all Beings. The Life of "Ten Thousand Beings" to use a Buddhist expression. The Life Inommable and incomprehensible as the Death. It is the explanation of his psychological expression limited to a slight enigmatic smile and a look that reveals nothing of his thoughts.

The Universe: This is the meaning of the fantastic, phantasmagoric landscape, which is in the background.

This understanding of the Mona Lisa is the explanation of the surprising success of this painting among the Asian populations. This is undoubtedly the mark of a great mind to have managed to paint a work that transcends the centuries and made to join the cultures.

The Mona Lisa symbolizes what the Hindus call "the Atman" or "The Brahman", and what the Taoists call "The Breath", "the Tao".

The Mona Lisa is the Self, the universal spiritual principle, which is the substratum of all living individualities.

Of all living individualities, but especially of Man. The Atman, which is the eternal and universal Self that merges into the Supreme Soul, the Absolute, also called Brahman.

The Mona Lisa can thus be interpreted in a metaphysical, cosmogonic and eschatological way: "You are that." "Our true Self is God, The Self and God are one."

The French academician François Cheng (Cheng Chi-Hsien born in 1929) wrote that "Chinese painting is based on a Taoist conception of the world that invites man to enter into communion with the universe considered alive." He could have spoken just as well, of the Mona Lisa.

The dual symbolism of the Mona Lisa is a reflection of a Humanism that is still well with religion, a humanism that is not anti-Catholic and has not yet become a religion of man. A Hommism.

Finally, it is interesting to note that European art, to symbolize the Man, or the Life, or the God, or the Absolute, took as a model a woman. One more time. Because the Virgin plays the role of a goddess, following so many other figures of human religious thought: The "Mother Goddesses", Isis, Gaia or Venus.

  

"Blessed Saint Martín of Tours,

full of the Spirit of the Lord

always having inexhaustible charity for the needy.

 

You, who full of love and generosity

when you saw the begger that was freezing from cold,

without knowing that in truth he was Christ,

did not doubt to give him half of your cape,

and did not give it completely to him

since the other half belonged to the Roman army;

you, who did not seek recognition

but only to favor your neighbor,

found glory before the Lord.

And when the Savior appeared to you

dressed with the half-cape

so as to express appreciation for your gesture

and He told you "today you covered me with your mantle",

you decided to no longer serve the army

and to dedicate your life to God

and to the salvation of souls,

being from then on a propagator of the faith

and a holy man totally dedicated

to whomever was in need.

 

Glorious Saint Martin,

you who worked miracles and prodigies,

who with joy, amiability and

the most exquisite goodness

won over the hearts of all

and did not cease to ever work for their wellbeing:

give me your hand and help me to come out

of all lack and scarcity

which today afflicts me and weighs me down.

 

Glorious Saint Martin, my blessed patron,

I humbly ask you with great faith

that you attain from God,

the fount of all Mercies

that my ways on this earth,

my work and my toils

be cleansed and opened with clarity.

In the name of Omnipotent God,

Saint Martin of Tours,

remove all that harms me

and give me work and prosperity.

O blessed relief, give me your saintly protection,

assist me, I beg you, in these difficult times:

 

(with much faith ask now for what you need)

 

You, noble Saint Martin, who have miraculous power

take my supplications with haste to the Heavens,

ask for my home all that is good;

may sorrows, ruins and miseries leave,

and may the Lord deign I merit

blessed fortune in my work (business),

and with it, abundance and prosperity,

so I may give freely to all in need.

 

Saint Martin, blessed Bishop of Tours,

may your virtues and charity

accompany me always.

I will not cease to pray to you

and to thank Almighty God

for all the favors granted;

and I promise to be charitable

and giving with all my brothers and sisters in need.

 

Saint Martin please intercede for me;

free and protect all my loved ones and I

from all that is evil.

Amen."

 

Stained glass detail from a medieval window in Chartres Cathedral.

Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek: γνωστικός gnostikos, "having knowledge", from γνῶσις gnōsis, knowledge) is a modern name for a variety of ancient religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish Christian milieux in the first and second century AD. These systems believed that the material world is created by an emanation or 'works' of a lower god (demiurge), trapping the divine spark within the human body. This divine spark could be liberated by gnosis, spiritual knowledge acquired through direct experience. Some of the core teachings include the following:

All matter is evil, and the non-material, spirit-realm is good.

There is an unknowable God, who gave rise to many lesser spirit beings called Aeons.

The creator of the (material) universe is not the supreme god, but an inferior spirit (the Demiurge).

Gnosticism does not deal with "sin," only ignorance.

To achieve salvation, one needs gnosis (knowledge).

The Gnostic ideas and systems flourished in the Mediterranean world in the second century AD, in conjunction with and influenced by the early Christian movements and Middle Platonism. After the second century, a decline set in. In the Persian Empire, Gnosticism in the form of Manicheism spread as far as China, while Mandaeism is still alive in Iraq.

A major question in scholarly research is the qualification of Gnosticism, based on the study of its texts, as either an interreligious phenomenon or as an independent religion.

 

Gnosis refers to knowledge based on personal experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine. In most Gnostic systems, the sufficient cause of salvation is this "knowledge of" ("acquaintance with") the divine. It is an inward "knowing", comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus (neoplatonism), and differs from proto-orthodox Christian views.[1] Gnostics are "those who are oriented toward knowledge and understanding – or perception and learning – as a particular modality for living".

 

The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is "learned" or "intellectual", such as used by Plato in the comparison of "practical" (praktikos) and "intellectual" (gnostikos). Plato's use of "learned" is fairly typical of Classical texts.

 

By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, becoming synonymous with the Greek term musterion. The adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria[note 3] speaks of the "learned" (gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus. Some scholars[note consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean "intellectual",[note 5] whereas his mention of "the intellectual sect" is a specific designation.

 

The term "Gnosticism" does not appear in ancient sources,[note 10] and was first coined in the 17th century by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation, where More used the term "Gnosticisme" to describe the heresy in Thyatira. The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos (Greek γνωστικός, "learned", "intellectual") by St. Irenaeus (c. 185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis "the heresy called Learned (gnostic)."

 

Origins

The earliest origins of Gnosticism are obscure and still disputed. The proto-orthodox Christian groups called Gnostics a heresy of Christianity,] but according to the modern scholars the theology's origin is closely related to Jewish sectarian milieus and early Christian sects. Scholars debate Gnosticism's origins as having roots in Neoplatonism and Buddhism, due to similarities in beliefs, but ultimately, its origins are currently unknown. As Christianity developed and became more popular, so did Gnosticism, with both proto-orthodox Christian and Gnostic Christian groups often existing in the same places. The Gnostic belief was widespread within Christianity until the proto-orthodox Christian communities expelled the group in the second and third centuries (C.E.). Gnosticism became the first group to be declared heretical.

 

Some scholars prefer to speak of "gnosis" when referring to first-century ideas that later developed into gnosticism, and to reserve the term "gnosticism" for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the second century.No gnostic texts have been discovered that pre-date Christianity,and "pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all."

 

Jewish Christian origins

 

Contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish Christian origins, originating in the late first century AD in non rabbinical Jewish sects and early Christian sects.

 

Many heads of gnostic schools were identified as Jewish Christians by Church Fathers, and Hebrew words and names of God were applied in some gnostic systems. The cosmogonic speculations among Christian Gnostics had partial origins in Maaseh Bereshit and Maaseh Merkabah. This thesis is most notably put forward by Gershom Scholem (1897–1982) and Gilles Quispel (1916–2006). Scholem detected Jewish gnosis in the imagery of the merkavah, which can also be found in "Christian" Gnostic documents, for example the being "caught away" to the third heaven mentioned by Paul the Apostle. Quispel sees Gnosticism as an independent Jewish development, tracing its origins to Alexandrian Jews, to which group Valentinus was also connected.

 

Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God. Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as "the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism". Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism. Recent research into the origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature.

 

Within early Christianity, the teachings of Paul and John may have been a starting point for Gnostic ideas, with a growing emphasis on the opposition between flesh and spirit, the value of charisma, and the disqualification of the Jewish law. The mortal body belonged to the world of inferior, worldly powers (the archons), and only the spirit or soul could be saved. The term gnostikos may have acquired a deeper significance here.

 

Alexandria was of central importance for the birth of Gnosticism. The Christian ecclesia (i. e. congregation, church) was of Jewish–Christian origin, but also attracted Greek members, and various strand of thought were available, such as "Judaic apocalypticism, speculation on divine wisdom, Greek philosophy, and Hellenistic mystery religions."

 

Regarding the angel Christology of some early Christians, Darrell Hannah notes:

 

[Some] early Christians understood the pre-incarnate Christ, ontologically, as an angel. This "true" angel Christology took many forms and may have appeared as early as the late First Century, if indeed this is the view opposed in the early chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews. The Elchasaites, or at least Christians influenced by them, paired the male Christ with the female Holy Spirit, envisioning both as two gigantic angels. Some Valentinian Gnostics supposed that Christ took on an angelic nature and that he might be the Saviour of angels. The author of the Testament of Solomon held Christ to be a particularly effective "thwarting" angel in the exorcism of demons. The author of De Centesima and Epiphanius’ "Ebionites" held Christ to have been the highest and most important of the first created archangels, a view similar in many respects to Hermas’ equation of Christ with Michael. Finally, a possible exegetical tradition behind the Ascension of Isaiah and attested by Origen's Hebrew master, may witness to yet another angel Christology, as well as an angel Pneumatology.

 

The pseudepigraphical Christian text Ascension of Isaiah identifies Jesus with angel Christology:

 

[The Lord Christ is commissioned by the Father] And I heard the voice of the Most High, the father of my LORD as he said to my LORD Christ who will be called Jesus, ‘Go out and descend through all the heavens...

 

The Shepherd of Hermas is a Christian literary work considered as canonical scripture by some of the early Church fathers such as Irenaeus. Jesus is identified with angel Christology in parable 5, when the author mentions a Son of God, as a virtuous man filled with a Holy "pre-existent spirit".

 

Neoplatonic influences

See also: Platonic Academy, Neoplatonism and Gnosticism, and Neoplatonism and Christianity

In the 1880s Gnostic connections with neo-Platonism were proposed.Ugo Bianchi, who organised the Congress of Messina of 1966 on the origins of Gnosticism, also argued for Orphic and Platonic origins.Gnostics borrowed significant ideas and terms from Platonism, using Greek philosophical concepts throughout their text, including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, existence), ousia (essence, substance, being), and demiurge (creator God). Both Sethian Gnostics and Valentinian Gnostics seem to have been influenced by Plato, Middle Platonism, and Neo-Pythagoreanism academies or schools of thought. Both schools attempted "an effort towards conciliation, even affiliation" with late antique philosophy, and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists, including Plotinus.

 

Persian origins or influences

Early research into the origins of Gnosticism proposed Persian origins or influences, spreading to Europe and incorporating Jewish elements. According to Wilhelm Bousset (1865–1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism,[29] and Richard August Reitzenstein (1861–1931) most famously situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia.

 

Carsten Colpe (b. 1929) has analyzed and criticised the Iranian hypothesis of Reitzenstein, showing that many of his hypotheses are untenable. Nevertheless, Geo Widengren (1907–1996) argued for the origin of (Mandaean) Gnosticism in Mazdean (Zoroastrianism) Zurvanism, in conjunction with ideas from the Aramaic Mesopotamian world.

 

Buddhist parallels

 

In 1966, at the Congress of Median, Buddhologist Edward Conze noted phenomenological commonalities between Mahayana Buddhism and Gnosticism, in his paper Buddhism and Gnosis, following an early suggestion put forward by Isaac Jacob Schmidt. The influence of Buddhism in any sense on either the gnostikos Valentinus (c. 170) or the Nag Hammadi texts (3rd century) is not supported by modern scholarship, although Elaine Pagels (1979) called it a "possibility".

 

Characteristics

Cosmology

 

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The Syrian–Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons. The Demiurge, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements "fall" into the material realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the divine realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within, is obtained.

 

Dualism and monism

Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the "radical dualist" systems of Manichaeism to the "mitigated dualism" of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. In qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.

 

Moral and ritual practice

Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice. In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behaviour. In normative early Christianity the Church administered and prescribed the correct behaviour for Christians, while in Gnosticism it was the internalised motivation that was important. Ritualistic behaviour was not important unless it was based on a personal, internal motivation. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora describes a general asceticism, based on the moral inclination of the individual.

 

Concepts

Monad

 

In many Gnostic systems, God is known as the Monad, the One. God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of light. The various emanations of God are called æons. According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc.

 

The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon ("Secret book") of John describes an unknown God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology, but different from the orthodox teachings that this God is the creator of heaven and earth. Orthodox theologians often attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive statements: he is omniscient, omnipotent, and truly benevolent. The Sethian hidden transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through negative theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable; commonly, "he" is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent symbol for being, as it were, "all-containing". In the Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in action is used to describe the effect of such a god.

 

Pleroma

Pleroma (Greek πλήρωμα, "fullness") refers to the totality of God's powers. The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light "above" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons. Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology.

 

Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language, and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form, since the word appears in the Epistle to the Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels, view the reference in Colossians as a term that has to be interpreted in a gnostic sense.

 

Emanation

 

The Supreme Light or Consciousness descends through a series of stages, gradations, worlds, or hypostases, becoming progressively more material and embodied. In time it will turn around to return to the One (epistrophe), retracing its steps through spiritual knowledge and contemplation.

 

Aeon

 

In many Gnostic systems, the aeons are the various emanations of the superior God or Monad. From this first being, also an æon, a series of different emanations occur, beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic Barbelo, from which successive pairs of aeons emanate, often in male–female pairings called syzygies. The numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty. The aeons as a totality constitute the pleroma, the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.

 

Two of the most commonly paired æons were Christ and Sophia (Greek: "Wisdom"); the latter refers to Christ as her "consort" in A Valentinian Exposition.

 

Sophia

 

In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for "wisdom") refers to the final and lowest emanation of God. In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90 AD.[citation needed]

 

Sophia, emanating without her partner, resulted in the production of the Demiurge (Greek: lit. "public builder"),[50] who is also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts.[43] This creature is concealed outside the pleroma;[43] in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The demiurge is responsible for the creation of mankind; trapping elements of the pleroma stolen from Sophia inside human bodies.[43][51] In response, the Godhead emanates two savior aeons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to teach man how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the pleroma.[52]

 

Demiurge[edit]

 

A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of Yaldabaoth, the Demiurge; however, cf. Mithraic Zervan Akarana[53]

Main article: Demiurge

The term demiurge derives from the Latinized form of the Greek term dēmiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker".[note 20] This figure is also called "Yaldabaoth",[43] Samael (Aramaic: sæmʻa-ʼel, "blind god"), or "Saklas" (Syriac: sækla, "the foolish one"), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent. Other names or identifications are Ahriman, El, Satan, and Yahweh.

 

The demiurge creates the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity.[55] The demiurge typically creates a group of co-actors named archons who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it.[43] The inferiority of the demiurge's creation may be compared to the technical inferiority of a work of art, painting, sculpture, etc. to the thing the art represents. In other cases it takes on a more ascetic tendency to view material existence negatively, which then becomes more extreme when materiality, including the human body, is perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants.

 

Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of Gnosticism, viewing materiality as being inherently evil, or as merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows.[56]

 

Archon[edit]

Main article: Archon (Gnosticism)

In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge.[51] In this context they may be seen as having the roles of the angels and demons of the Old Testament.[citation needed]

 

According to Origen's Contra Celsum, a sect called the Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that follow: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos, and Horaios.[57] Similarly to the Mithraic Kronos and Vedic Narasimha, a form of Vishnu, Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion.[43][58][59]

 

Other concepts[edit]

Other Gnostic concepts are:[60]

 

sarkic – earthly, hidebound, ignorant, uninitiated. The lowest level of human thought; the fleshly, instinctive level of thinking.

hylic – lowest order of the three types of human. Unable to be saved since their thinking is entirely material, incapable of understanding the gnosis.

psychic – "soulful", partially initiated. Matter-dwelling spirits

pneumatic – "spiritual", fully initiated, immaterial souls escaping the doom of the material world via gnosis.

kenoma – the visible or manifest cosmos, "lower" than the pleroma

charisma – gift, or energy, bestowed by pneumatics through oral teaching and personal encounters

logos – the divine ordering principle of the cosmos; personified as Christ. See also Odic force.

hypostasis – literally "that which stands beneath" the inner reality, emanation (appearance) of God, known to psychics

ousia – essence of God, known to pneumatics. Specific individual things or being.

Jesus as Gnostic saviour[edit]

Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the earth,[61][52] while others adamantly denied that the supreme being came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who attained divinity through gnosis and taught his disciples to do the same.[citation needed] Among the Mandaeans, Jesus was considered a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist.[62] Still other traditions identify Mani and Seth – third son of Adam and Eve – as salvific figures.

 

Development[edit]

Three periods can be discerned in the development of Gnosticism:[63]

 

Late first century and early second century: development of Gnostic ideas, contemporaneous with the writing of the New Testament;

mid-second century to early third century: high point of the classical Gnostic teachers and their systems, "who claimed that their systems represented the inner truth revealed by Jesus";[63]

end of second century to fourth century: reaction by the proto-orthodox church and condemnation as heresy, and subsequent decline.

During the first period, three types of tradition developed:[63]

 

Genesis was reinterpreted in Jewish milieus, viewing Jahweh as a jealous God who enslaved people; freedom was to be obtained from this jealous God;

A wisdom tradition developed, in which Jesus' sayings were interpreted as pointers to an esoteric wisdom, in which the soul could be divinized through identification with wisdom.[63][note 21] Some of Jesus' sayings may have been incorporated into the gospels to put a limit on this development. The conflicts described in 1 Corinthians may have been inspired by a clash between this wisdom tradition and Paul's gospel of crucifixion and arising;[63]

A mythical story developed about the descent of a heavenly creature to reveal the Divine world as the true home of human beings.[63] Jewish Christianity saw the Messiah, or Christ, as "an eternal aspect of God's hidden nature, his "spirit" and "truth", who revealed himself throughout sacred history".[25]

The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths,[65] and the Persian Empire. It continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, but decline also set in during the third century, due to a growing aversion from the Catholic Church, and the economic and cultural deterioration of the Roman Empire.[66] Conversion to Islam, and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though a few Mandaean communities still exist. Gnostic and pseudo-gnostic ideas became influential in some of the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.

 

Relation with early Christianity[edit]

Dillon notes that Gnosticism raises questions about the development of early Christianity.[67]

 

Orthodoxy and heresy[edit]

See also: Diversity in early Christian theology

The Christian heresiologists, most notably Irenaeus, regarded Gnosticism as a Christian heresy. Modern scholarship notes that early Christianity was very diverse, and Christian orthodoxy only settled in the 4th century, when the Roman Empire declined and Gnosticism lost its influence.[68][66][69][67] Gnostics and proto-orthodox Christians shared some terminology. Initially, they were hard to distinguish from each other.[70]

 

According to Walter Bauer, "heresies" may well have been the original form of Christianity in many regions.[71] This theme was further developed by Elaine Pagels,[72] who argues that "the proto-orthodox church found itself in debates with gnostic Christians that helped them to stabilize their own beliefs."[67] According to Gilles Quispel, Catholicism arose in response to Gnosticism, establishing safeguards in the form of the monarchic episcopate, the creed, and the canon of holy books.[73]

 

Historical Jesus[edit]

See also: Jesus in comparative mythology and Christ myth theory

The Gnostic movements may contain information about the historical Jesus, since some texts preserve sayings which show similarities with canonical sayings.[74] Especially the Gospel of Thomas has a significant amount of parallel sayings.[74] Yet, a striking difference is that the canonical sayings center on the coming endtime, while the Thomas-sayings center on a kingdom of heaven that is already here, and not a future event.[75] According to Helmut Koester, this is because the Thomas-sayings are older, implying that in the earliest forms of Christianity Jesus was regarded as a wisdom-teacher.[75] An alternative hypothesis states that the Thomas authors wrote in the second century, changing existing sayings and eliminating the apocalyptic concerns.[75] According to April DeConick, such a change occurred when the endtime did not come, and the Thomasine tradition turned toward a "new theology of mysticism" and a "theological commitment to a fully-present kingdom of heaven here and now, where their church had attained Adam and Eve's divine status before the Fall."[75]

 

Johannine literature[edit]

The prologue of the Gospel of John describes the incarnated Logos, the light that came to earth, in the person of Jesus.[76] The Apocryphon of John contains a scheme of three descendants from the heavenly realm, the third one being Jesus, just as in the Gospel of John. The similarities probably point to a relationship between gnostic ideas and the Johannine community.[76] According to Raymond Brown, the Gospel of John shows "the development of certain gnostic ideas, especially Christ as heavenly revealer, the emphasis on light versus darkness, and anti-Jewish animus."[76] The Johannine material reveals debates about the redeemer myth.[63] The Johannine letters show that there were different interpretations of the gospel story, and the Johannine images may have contributed to second-century Gnostic ideas about Jesus as a redeemer who descended from heaven.[63] According to DeConick, the Gospel of John shows a "transitional system from early Christianity to gnostic beliefs in a God who transcends our world."[76] According to DeConick, John may show a bifurcation of the idea of the Jewish God into Jesus' Father in Heaven and the Jews' father, "the Father of the Devil" (most translations say "of [your] father the Devil"), which may have developed into the gnostic idea of the Monad and the Demiurge.[76]

 

Paul and Gnosticism[edit]

Tertullian calls Paul "the apostle of the heretics",[77] because Paul's writings were attractive to gnostics, and interpreted in a gnostic way, while Jewish Christians found him to stray from the Jewish roots of Christianity.[78] In I Corinthians Paul refers to some church members as "having knowledge" (Greek: τὸν ἔχοντα γνῶσιν, ton echonta gnosin).[79] James Dunn claims that in some cases, Paul affirmed views that were closer to gnosticism than to proto-orthodox Christianity.[80]

 

According to Clement of Alexandria, the disciples of Valentinus said that Valentinus was a student of a certain Theudas, who was a student of Paul,[80] and Elaine Pagels notes that Paul's epistles were interpreted by Valentinus in a gnostic way, and Paul could be considered a proto-gnostic as well as a proto-Catholic.[60] Many Nag Hammadi texts, including, for example, the Prayer of Paul and the Coptic Apocalypse of Paul, consider Paul to be "the great apostle".[80] The fact that he claimed to have received his gospel directly by revelation from God appealed to the gnostics, who claimed gnosis from the risen Christ.[81] The Naassenes, Cainites, and Valentinians referred to Paul's epistles.[82] Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy have expanded upon this idea of Paul as a gnostic teacher;[83] although their premise that Jesus was invented by early Christians based on an alleged Greco-Roman mystery cult has been dismissed by scholars.[84][note 22] However, his revelation was different from the gnostic revelations.[85]

 

Major movements[edit]

Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism[edit]

Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism includes Sethianism, Valentinianism, Basilideans, Thomasine traditions, and Serpent Gnostics, as well as a number of other minor groups and writers.[86] Hermeticism is also a western Gnostic tradition,[66] though it differs in some respects from these other groups.[87] The Syrian–Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences. It depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. These schools tend to view evil in terms of matter that is markedly inferior to goodness and lacking spiritual insight and goodness rather than as an equal force.

 

Many of these movements used texts related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian, though quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms. Jesus and several of his apostles, such as Thomas the Apostle, claimed as the founder of the Thomasine form of Gnosticism, figure in many Gnostic texts. Mary Magdalene is respected as a Gnostic leader, and is considered superior to the twelve apostles by some gnostic texts, such as the Gospel of Mary. John the Evangelist is claimed as a Gnostic by some Gnostic interpreters,[88] as is even St. Paul.[60] Most of the literature from this category is known to us through the Nag Hammadi Library.

 

Sethite-Barbeloite[edit]

Main article: Sethianism

Sethianism was one of the main currents of Gnosticism during the 2nd to 3rd centuries, and the prototype of Gnosticism as condemned by Irenaeus.[89] Sethianism attributed its gnosis to Seth, third son of Adam and Eve and Norea, wife of Noah, who also plays a role in Mandeanism and Manicheanism. Their main text is the Apocryphon of John, which does not contain Christian elements,[89] and is an amalgam of two earlier myths.[90] Earlier texts such as Apocalypse of Adam show signs of being pre-Christian and focus on the Seth, third son of Adam and Eve.[91] Later Sethian texts continue to interact with Platonism. Sethian texts such as Zostrianos and Allogenes draw on the imagery of older Sethian texts, but utilize "a large fund of philosophical conceptuality derived from contemporary Platonism, (that is, late middle Platonism) with no traces of Christian content."[31][note 23]

 

According to John D. Turner, German and American scholarship views Sethianism as "a distinctly inner-Jewish, albeit syncretistic and heterodox, phenomenon", while British and French scholarship tends to see Sethianism as "a form of heterodox Christian speculation".[92] Roelof van den Broek notes that "Sethianism" may never have been a separate religious movement, and that the term refers rather to a set of mythological themes which occur in various texts.[93]

 

According to Smith, Sethianism may have begun as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a syncretic cult that incorporated elements of Christianity and Platonism as it grew.[94] According to Temporini, Vogt, and Haase, early Sethians may be identical to or related to the Nazarenes (sect), the Ophites, or the sectarian group called heretics by Philo.[91]

 

According to Turner, Sethianism was influenced by Christianity and Middle Platonism, and originated in the second century as a fusion of a Jewish baptizing group of possibly priestly lineage, the so-called Barbeloites,[95] named after Barbelo, the first emanation of the Highest God, and a group of Biblical exegetes, the Sethites, the "seed of Seth".[96] At the end of the second century, Sethianism grew apart from the developing Christian orthodoxy, which rejected the docetian view of the Sethians on Christ.[97] In the early third century, Sethianism was fully rejected by Christian heresiologists, as Sethianism shifted toward the contemplative practices of Platonism while losing interest in their own origins.[98] In the late third century, Sethianism was attacked by neo-Platonists like Plotinus, and Sethianism became alienated from Platonism. In the early- to mid-fourth century, Sethianism fragmented into various sectarian Gnostic groups such as the Archontics, Audians, Borborites, and Phibionites, and perhaps Stratiotici, and Secundians.[99][31] Some of these groups existed into the Middle Ages.[99]

 

Samaritan Baptist sects[edit]

According to Magris, Samaritan Baptist sects were an offshoot of John the Baptist.[100] One offshoot was in turn headed by Dositheus, Simon Magus, and Menander. It was in this milieu that the idea emerged that the world was created by ignorant angels. Their baptismal ritual removed the consequences of sin, and led to a regeneration by which natural death, which was caused by these angels, was overcome.[100] The Samaritan leaders were viewed as "the embodiment of God's power, spirit, or wisdom, and as the redeemer and revealer of 'true knowledge'".[100]

 

The Simonians were centered on Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, who became in early Christianity the archetypal false teacher. The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books. Justin Martyr identifies Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil. According to Hippolytus, Simonianism is an earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine.[101]

 

The Basilidians or Basilideans were founded by Basilides of Alexandria in the second century. Basilides claimed to have been taught his doctrines by Glaucus, a disciple of St. Peter, but could also have been a pupil of Menander.[102] Basilidianism survived until the end of the 4th century as Epiphanius knew of Basilidians living in the Nile Delta. It was, however, almost exclusively limited to Egypt, though according to Sulpicius Severus it seems to have found an entrance into Spain through a certain Mark from Memphis. St. Jerome states that the Priscillianists were infected with it.

 

Valentinianism[edit]

Main article: Valentinianism

Valentinianism was named after its founder Valentinus (c. 100 – 180), who was a candidate for bishop of Rome but started his own group when another was chosen.[103] Valentinianism flourished after the middle of the 2nd century. The school was popular, spreading to Northwest Africa and Egypt, and through to Asia Minor and Syria in the east,[104] and Valentinus is specifically named as gnostikos by Irenaeus. It was an intellectually vibrant tradition,[105] with an elaborate and philosophically "dense" form of Gnosticism. Valentinus' students elaborated on his teachings and materials, and several varieties of their central myth are known.

 

Valentinian Gnosticism may have been monistic rather than dualistic.[note 24] In the Valentinian myths, the creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on the part of the Demiurge, but due to the fact that he is less perfect than the superior entities from which he emanated.[108] Valentinians treat physical reality with less contempt than other Gnostic groups, and conceive of materiality not as a separate substance from the divine, but as attributable to an error of perception which becomes symbolized mythopoetically as the act of material creation.[108]

 

The followers of Valentinius attempted to systematically decode the Epistles, claiming that most Christians made the mistake of reading the Epistles literally rather than allegorically. Valentinians understood the conflict between Jews and Gentiles in Romans to be a coded reference to the differences between Psychics (people who are partly spiritual but have not yet achieved separation from carnality) and Pneumatics (totally spiritual people). The Valentinians argued that such codes were intrinsic in gnosticism, secrecy being important to ensuring proper progression to true inner understanding.[note 25]

 

According to Bentley Layton "Classical Gnosticism" and "The School of Thomas" antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, whom Layton called "the great [Gnostic] reformer" and "the focal point" of Gnostic development. While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may have been influenced by him.[109] Simone Petrement, while arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. According to Petrement, Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded as a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil.[110]

 

Thomasine traditions[edit]

The Thomasine Traditions refers to a group of texts which are attributed to the apostle Thomas.[111][note 26] Karen L. King notes that "Thomasine Gnosticism" as a separate category is being criticised, and may "not stand the test of scholarly scrutiny".[112]

 

Marcion[edit]

Marcion was a Church leader from Sinope (present-day Turkey), who preached in Rome around 150 CE,[113] but was expelled and started his own congregation, which spread throughout the Mediterranean. He rejected the Old Testament, and followed a limited Christian canon, which included only a redacted version of Luke, and ten edited letters of Paul.[114] Some scholars do not consider him to be a gnostic,[115][note 27] but his teachings clearly resemble some Gnostic teachings.[113] He preached a radical difference between the God of the Old Testament, the Demiurge, the "evil creator of the material universe", and the highest God, the "loving, spiritual God who is the father of Jesus", who had sent Jesus to the earth to free mankind from the tyranny of the Jewish Law.[113][2] Like the Gnostics, Marcion argued that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit appearing to men in the shape of a human form, and not someone in a true physical body.[116] Marcion held that the heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien god; he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it.[116]

 

Hermeticism[edit]

Hermeticism is closely related to Gnosticism, but its orientation is more positive.[66][87]

 

Other Gnostic groups[edit]

Serpent Gnostics. The Naassenes, Ophites and the Serpentarians gave prominence to snake symbolism, and snake handling played a role in their ceremonies.[113]

Cerinthus (c. 100), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus.[117]

The Cainites are so-named since Hippolytus of Rome claims that they worshiped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group. Hippolytus claims that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see libertinism). The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain.

The Carpocratians, a libertine sect following only the Gospel according to the Hebrews

The school of Justin, which combined gnostic elements with the ancient Greek religion.

The Borborites, a libertine Gnostic sect, said to be descended from the Nicolaitans[118]

Persian Gnosticism[edit]

The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism.

 

Manichaeism[edit]

 

Manicheanism priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in Sogdian. Manuscript from Khocho, Tarim Basin.

Main article: Manichaeism

Manichaeism was founded by the Prophet Mani (216–276). Mani's father was a member of the Jewish-Christian sect of the Elcesaites, a subgroup of the Gnostic Ebionites. At ages 12 and 24, Mani had visionary experiences of a "heavenly twin" of his, calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Christ. In 240–41, Mani travelled to the Indo-Greek Kingdom of the Sakhas in modern-day Afghanistan, where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies. Returning in 242, he joined the court of Shapur I, to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the Shabuhragan. The original writings were written in Syriac Aramaic, in a unique Manichaean script.

 

Manichaeism conceives of two coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict. Certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness, and the purpose of material creation is to engage in the slow process of extraction of these individual elements. In the end the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism,[119] in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light.[120]

 

According to Kurt Rudolph, the decline of Manichaeism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west.[121] In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa.[note 28] There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain. From Syria it progressed still farther, into Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church.[121]

 

In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, because the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire.[121]

 

Mandaeanism[edit]

Main article: Mandaeanism

 

Mandaean house of worship in Nasiriya, Iraq

The Mandaeans are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. Their religion has been practised primarily around the lower Karun, Euphrates and Tigris and the rivers that surround the Shatt-al-Arab waterway, part of southern Iraq and Khuzestan Province in Iran. Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan, and there are thought to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide.[124]

 

The name of the group derives from the term Mandā d-Heyyi, which roughly means "Knowledge of Life". Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually came to be a key figure in the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity,[125] Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture, written in Mandaean Aramaic, survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known as the Genzā Rabbā and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 3rd century. There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia).

 

Middle Ages[edit]

After its demise in the Mediterranean world, Gnosticism lived on in the periphery of the Byzantine Empire, and resurfaced in the western world. The Paulicians, an Adoptionist group which flourished between 650 and 872 in Armenia and the Eastern Themes of the Byzantine Empire, were accused by orthodox medieval sources of being Gnostic and quasi Manichaean Christian. The Bogomils, emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread throughout Europe. It was as synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church reform movement.

 

The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) were also accused by their enemies of the traits of Gnosticism; though whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. If their critics are reliable the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), though they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force.[verification needed]

 

Islam[edit]

The message of the Islamic prophet Muhammad shows close similarities to many Gnostic ideas. The Quran, like Gnostic cosmology, makes a sharp distinction between this world and the afterlife. The notion of four rivers in heaven, as mentioned in the Quran, separating this world from the other , also appears frequently in Mandaean literature. God is commonly thought of as being beyond human comprehension. In some Islamic schools of thought, somehow identifiable with the Gnostic Monad.[126][127] However, according to Islam and unlike most Gnostic sects, not rejection of this world, but performing good deeds leads to the heaven. And according to the Islamic belief in strict Oneness of God, there was no room for a lower deity; such as the demiurge.[128] According to Islam, both good and evil come from one God, a position especially opposed by the Manichaeans. Ibn al-Muqaffa depicted the Islamic deity as a demonic entity who "fights with humans and boasts about His victories" and "sitting on a throne, from which He can descend". It would be impossible that both light and darkness were created from one source, since they were regarded as two different eternal principles.[129] Muslim theologists countered this accusation by the example of a repeating sinner, who says: "I laid, and I repent";[130] this would prove that good can also result out of evil.

 

Islam also integrated traces of an entity given authority over the lower world in some early writings: Iblis is regarded by some Sufis as the owner of this world, and humans must avoid the treasures of this world, since they would belong to him.[131] In the Isma'ili Shia work Umm al Kitab, Azazil's role resembles whose of the Gnostic demiurge.[132] Like the demiurge, he is endowed with the ability to create his own world and seeks to imprison humans in the material world, but here, his power is limited and depends on the higher God.[133] Such Gnostic anthropogenic can be found frequently among Isma'ili traditions.[134] However, Ismailism were often criticised as non-Islamic. Ghazali characterized them as a group who are outwardly Shias but were actually adherence of a dualistic and philosophical religion. Further traces of Gnostic ideas can be found in Sufi anthropogenic.[135] Like the gnostic conception of human beings imprisoned in matter, Sufi-traditions acknowledges the human soul is an accomplice of the material world and subject to bodily desires similar to the way archontic spheres envelop the pneuma.[136] The Ruh must therefore gain victory over the lower and material-bound psyche, to overcome his animal nature. A human being captured by his animal desires, mistakenly claims autonomy and independence from the "higher God", thus resembling the lower deity in classical gnostic traditions. However, since the goal is not to abandon the created world, but just to free oneself from ones own lower desires, it can be disputed whether this can still be Gnostic, but rather a completion of the message of Muhammad.[129] It seems that Gnostic ideas were an influential part of early Islamic development but later lost its influence. However the Gnostic light metaphorics and the idea of unity of existence still prevailed in later Islamic thought.[127]

 

Kabbalah[edit]

Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of Kabbalah. Many core Gnostic ideas reappear in Kabbalah, where they are used for dramatically reinterpreting earlier Jewish sources according to this new system.[137] The Kabbalists originated in 13th-century Provence,[note 29] which was at that time also the center of the Gnostic Cathars. While some scholars in the middle of the 20th century tried to assume an influence between the Cathar "gnostics" and the origins of the Kabbalah, this assumption has proved to be an incorrect generalization not substantiated by any original texts.[139] On the other hand, other scholars, such as Scholem, have postulated that there was originally a "Jewish gnosticism", which influenced the early origins of gnosticism.[140]

 

Kabbalah does not employ the terminology or labels of non-Jewish Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible).[141] The 13th-century Zohar ("Splendor"), a foundational text in Kabbalah, is written in the style of a Jewish Aramaic Midrash, clarifying the five books of the Torah with a new Kabbalistic system that uses completely Jewish terms.[142]

 

Modern times[edit]

Main article: Gnosticism in modern times

The Mandaeans are an ancient Gnostic sect that have survived to this day and are found today in Iraq.[143] Their namesake owes to their following John the Baptist and in that country, they have about five thousand followers.[143] A number of ecclesiastical bodies that think of themselves as Gnostic have set up or re-founded since World War II, including the Ecclesia Gnostica, Apostolic Johannite Church, Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, the Gnostic Church of France, the Thomasine Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the North American College of Gnostic Bishops,[144] and the Universal Gnosticism of Samael Aun Weor.[145]

 

A number of 19th-century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer,[146] Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced.[147] Jules Doinel "re-established" a Gnostic church in France in 1890, which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud as Tau Jean II most notably), and, though small, is still active today.[148]

 

Early 20th-century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderately influenced. René Guénon founded the gnostic review, La Gnose in 1909, before moving to a more Perennialist position, and founding his Traditionalist School. Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought.

 

The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 has had a huge effect on Gnosticism since World War II. Intellectuals who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Lawrence Durrell, Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced.[147] Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own philosophy.[149]

 

Alfred North Whitehead was aware of the existence of the newly discovered Gnostic scrolls. Accordingly, Michel Weber has proposed a Gnostic interpretation of his late metaphysics.[150]

 

Sources[edit]

Heresiologists[edit]

Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in 1945 Gnosticism was known primarily through the works of heresiologists, Church Fathers who opposed those movements. These writings had an antagonistic bias towards gnostic teachings, and were incomplete. Several heresiological writers, such as Hippolytus, made little effort to exactly record the nature of the sects they reported on, or transcribe their sacred texts. Reconstructions of incomplete Gnostic texts were attempted in modern times, but research on Gnosticism was coloured by the orthodox views of those heresiologists.

 

Justin Martyr (c. 100/114 – c. 162/168) wrote the First Apology, addressed to Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, which criticising Simon Magus, Menander and Marcion. Since this time, both Simon and Menander have been considered as 'proto-Gnostic'.[151] Irenaeus (died c. 202) wrote Against Heresies (c. 180–185), which identifies Simon Magus from Flavia Neapolis in Samaria as the inceptor of Gnosticism. From Samaria he charted an apparent spread of the teachings of Simon through the ancient "knowers" into the teachings of Valentinus and other, contemporary Gnostic sects.[note 30] Hippolytus (170–235) wrote the ten-volume Refutation Against all Heresies, of which eight have been unearthed. It also focuses on the connection between pre-Socratic (and therefore Pre-Incantation of Christ) ideas and the false beliefs of early gnostic heretical leaders. Thirty-three of the groups he reported on are considered Gnostic by modern scholars, including 'the foreigners' and 'the Seth people'. Hippolytus further presents individual teachers such as Simon, Valentinus, Secundus, Ptolemy, Heracleon, Marcus and Colorbasus. Tertullian (c. 155–230) from Carthage wrote Adversus Valentinianos ('Against the Valentinians'), c. 206, as well as five books around 207–208 chronicling and refuting the teachings of Marcion.

 

Gnostic texts[edit]

See also: Gnostic texts and Nag Hammadi library

Prior to the discovery at Nag Hammadi, a limited number of texts were available to students of Gnosticism. Reconstructions were attempted from the records of the heresiologists, but these were necessarily coloured by the motivation behind the source accounts.

 

The Nag Hammadi library [note 31] is a collection of Gnostic texts discovered in 1945 near Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt. Twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman.[152] The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's Republic. These codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of 367.[153] Though the original language of composition was probably Greek, the various codices contained in the collection were written in Coptic. A 1st- or 2nd-century date of composition for the lost Greek originals has been proposed, though this is disputed; the manuscripts themselves date from the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Nag Hammadi texts demonstrated the fluidity of early Christian scripture and early Christianity itself.[note 32]

 

Academic studies[edit]

Development[edit]

Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, the Gnostic movements were largely perceived through the lens of the early church heresiologists. Johann Lorenz von Mosheim (1694–1755) proposed that Gnosticism developed on its own in Greece and Mesopotamia, spreading to the west and incorporating Jewish elements. According to Mosheim, Jewish thought took Gnostic elements and used them against Greek philosophy.[33] J. Horn and Ernest Anton Lewald proposed Persian and Zoroastrian origins, while Jacques Matter described Gnosticism as an intrusion of eastern cosmological and theosophical speculation into Christianity.[33]

 

In the 1880s Gnosticism was placed within Greek philosophy, especially neo-Platonism.[29] Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), who belonged to the School of the History of Dogma and proposed a Kirchengeschichtliches Ursprungsmodell, saw gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy.[29][155] According to Harnack, Gnosticism was the "acute Hellenization of Christianity."[29]

 

The Religionsgeschichtliche Schule ("history of religions school", 19th century) had a profound influence on the study of Gnosticism.[29] The Religionsgeschichtliche Schule saw Gnosticism as a pre-Christian phenomenon, and Christian gnosis as only one, and even marginal instance of this phenomenon.[29] According to Wilhelm Bousset (1865–1920), Gnosticism was a form of Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretism,[29] and Eduard Norden (1868–1941) also proposed pre-Christian origins,[29] while Richard August Reitzenstein (1861–1931), and Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) also situated the origins of Gnosticism in Persia.[29] Hans Heinrich Schaeder (1896–1957) and Hans Leisegang saw Gnosticism as an amalgam of eastern thought in a Greek form.[29]

 

Hans Jonas (1903–1993) took an intermediate approach, using both the comparative approach of the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule and the existentialist hermeneutics of Bultmann. Jonas emphasized the duality between God and the world, and concluded that Gnosticism cannot be derived from Platonism.[19]

 

Contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish or Judeo-Christian origins;[19] this theses is most notably put forward by Gershom G. Scholem (1897–1982) and Gilles Quispel (1916–2006).[156]

 

The study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christianity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in 1945.[157][158] A great number of translations have been published, and the works of Elaine Pagels, Professor of Religion at Princeton University, especially The Gnostic Gospels, which detailed the suppression of some of the writings found at Nag Hammadi by early bishops of the Christian church, has popularized Gnosticism in mainstream culture,[web 3][web 4] but also incited strong responses and condemnations from clergical writers.[159]

 

Definitions of Gnosticism[edit]

According to Matthew J. Dillon, six trends can be discerned in the definitions of Gnosticism:[160]

 

Typologies, "a catalogue of shared characteristics that are used to classify a group of objects together."[160]

Traditional approaches, viewing Gnosticism as a Christian heresy[161]

Phenomenological approaches, most notably Hans Jonas[162]

Restricting Gnosticism, "identifying which groups were explicitly called gnostics",[163] or which groups were clearly sectarian[163]

Deconstructing Gnosticism, abandoning the category of "Gnosticism"[164]

Psychology and cognitive science of religion, approaching Gnosticism as a psychological phenomena[165]

Typologies[edit]

The 1966 Messina conference on the origins of gnosis and Gnosticism proposed to designate

 

... a particular group of systems of the second century after Christ" as gnosticism, and to use gnosis to define a conception of knowledge that transcends the times, which was described as "knowledge of divine mysteries for an élite.[166]

 

This definition has now been abandoned.[160] It created a religion, "Gnosticism", from the "gnosis" which was a widespread element of ancient religions,[note 33] suggesting a homogeneous conception of gnosis by these Gnostic religions, which did not exist at the time.[167]

 

According to Dillon, the texts from Nag Hammadi made clear that this definition was limited, and that they are "better classified by movements (such as Valentinian), mythological similarity (Sethian), or similar tropes (presence of a Demiurge)."[160] Dillon further notes that the Messian-definition "also excluded pre-Christian Gnosticism and later developments, such as the Mandaeans and the Manichaeans."[160]

 

Hans Jonas discerned two main currents of Gnosticism, namely Syrian-Egyptian, and Persian, which includes Manicheanism and Mandaeanism.[19] Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. Persian Gnosticism possesses more dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist Zoroastrians. Those of the medieval Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians seem to include elements of both categories.

 

Gilles Quispel divided Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism further into Jewish Gnosticism (the Apocryphon of John)[89] and Christian Gnosis (Marcion, Basilides, Valentinus). This "Christian Gnosticism" was Christocentric, and influenced by Christian writings such as the Gospel of John and the Pauline epistles.[168] Other authors speak rather of "Gnostic Christians", noting that Gnostics were a prominent substream in the early church.[169]

 

Traditional approaches – Gnosticism as Christian heresy[edit]

The best known example of this approach is Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), who stated that "Gnosticism is the acute Hellenization of Christianity."[161] According to Dillon, "many scholars today continue in the vein of Harnack in reading gnosticism as a late and contaminated version of Christianity", notably Darrell Block, who criticises Elaine Pagels for her view that early Christianity was wildly diverse.[162]

 

Phenomenological approaches[edit]

Hans Jonas (1903–1993) t